Michelle A. Hughes

A Death Effector Domain Chain DISC Model Reveals a Crucial Role for Caspase-8 Chain Assembly in Mediating Apoptotic Cell Death

Summary Formation of the death-inducing signaling complex (DISC) is a critical step in death receptor-mediated apoptosis, yet the mechanisms underlying assembly of this key multiprotein complex remain unclear. Using quantitative mass spectrometry, we have delineated the stoichiometry of the native TRAIL DISC. While current models suggest that core DISC components are present at a ratio of 1:1, our data indicate that FADD is substoichiometric relative to TRAIL-Rs or DED-only proteins; strikingly, there is up to 9-fold more caspase-8 than FADD in the DISC. Using structural modeling, we propose an alternative DISC model in which procaspase-8 molecules interact sequentially, via their DED domains, to form a caspase-activating chain. Mutating key interacting residues in procaspase-8 DED2 abrogates DED chain formation in cells and disrupts TRAIL/CD95 DISC-mediated procaspase-8 activation in a functional DISC reconstitution model. This provides direct experimental evidence for a DISC model in which DED chain assembly drives caspase-8 dimerization/activation, thereby triggering cell death.

Reconstitution of the Death-Inducing Signaling Complex Reveals a Substrate Switch that Determines CD95-Mediated Death or Survival

The death-inducing signaling complex (DISC) is critical for initiation of death-receptor-mediated apoptosis; however, paradoxically, CD95 also signals for cell survival. Here, we reconstitute a functional DISC using only purified CD95, FADD, and procaspase-8 and unveil a two-step activation mechanism involving both dimerization and proteolytic cleavage of procaspase-8 that is obligatory for death-receptor-induced apoptosis. Initially, dimerization yields active procaspase-8 with a very restricted substrate repertoire, limited to itself or c-FLIP. Proteolytic cleavage is then required to fully activate caspase-8, thereby permitting DISC-mediated cleavage of the critical exogenous apoptotic substrates, caspase-3 and Bid. This switch in catalytic activity and substrate range is a key determinant of DISC signaling, as cellular expression of noncleavable procaspase-8 mutants, which undergo DISC-mediated oligomerization, but not cleavage, fails to initiate CD95-induced apoptosis. Thus, using the reconstituted DISC, we have delineated a crucial two-step activation mechanism whereby activated death receptor complexes can trigger death or survival.

The ‘complexities’ of life and death: Death receptor signalling platforms

Cell death is critical to the normal functioning of multi-cellular organisms, playing a central role in development, immunity, inflammation, and cancer progression. Two cell death mechanisms, apoptosis and necroptosis, are dependent on the formation of distinct multi-protein complexes including the DISC, Apoptosome, Piddosome and Necrosome following the induction of cell death by specific stimuli. The role of several of these key multi-protein signalling platforms, namely the DISC, TNFR1 complex I/II, the Necrosome and Ripoptosome, in mediating these pathways will be discussed, as well as the open questions and potential therapeutic benefits of understanding their underlying mechanisms.

Protein Kinase C Modulates Tumor Necrosis Factor-related Apoptosis-inducing Ligand-induced Apoptosis by Targeting the Apical Events of Death Receptor Signaling

We have further examined the mechanism by which phorbol ester-mediated protein kinase C (PKC) activation protects against tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-related apoptosis-inducing ligand (TRAIL)-induced cytotoxicity. We now report that activation of PKC targets death receptor signaling complex formation. Pre-treatment with 12-O-tetradecanoylphorbol-13-acetate (PMA) led to inhibition of TRAIL-induced apoptosis in HeLa cells, which was characterized by a reduction in phosphatidylserine (PS) externalization, decreased caspase-8 processing, and incomplete maturation and activation of caspase-3. These effects of PMA were completely abrogated by the PKC inhibitor, bisindolylmaleimide I (Bis I), clearly implicating PKC in the protective effect of PMA. TRAIL-induced mitochondrial release of the apoptosis mediators cytochrome c and Smac was blocked by PMA. This, together with the observed decrease in Bid cleavage, suggested that PKC activation modulates apical events in TRAIL signaling upstream of mitochondria. This was confirmed by analysis of TRAIL death-inducing signaling complex formation, which was disrupted in PMA-treated cells as evidenced by a marked reduction in Fas-associated death domain protein (FADD) recruitment, an effect that could not be explained by any change in FADD phosphorylation state. In an in vitro binding assay, the intracellular domains of both TRAIL-R1 and TRAIL-R2 bound FADD: activation of PKC significantly inhibited this interaction suggesting that PKC may be targeting key apical components of death receptor signaling. Significantly, this effect was not confined to TRAIL, because isolation of the native TNF receptor signaling complex revealed that PKC activation also inhibited TNF receptor-associated death domain protein recruitment to TNF-R1 and TNF-induced phosphorylation of IκB-α. Taken together, these results show that PKC activation specifically inhibits the recruitment of key obligatory death domain-containing adaptor proteins to their respective membrane-associated signaling complexes, thereby modulating TRAIL-induced apoptosis and TNF-induced NF-κB activation, respectively.

Co-operative and Hierarchical Binding of c-FLIP and Caspase-8: A Unified Model Defines How c-FLIP Isoforms Differentially Control Cell Fate

Summary The death-inducing signaling complex (DISC) initiates death receptor-induced apoptosis. DISC assembly and activation are controlled by c-FLIP isoforms, which function as pro-apoptotic (c-FLIPL only) or anti-apoptotic (c-FLIPL/c-FLIPS) regulators of procaspase-8 activation. Current models assume that c-FLIP directly competes with procaspase-8 for recruitment to FADD. Using a functional reconstituted DISC, structure-guided mutagenesis, and quantitative LC-MS/MS, we show that c-FLIPL/S binding to the DISC is instead a co-operative procaspase-8-dependent process. FADD initially recruits procaspase-8, which in turn recruits and heterodimerizes with c-FLIPL/S via a hierarchical binding mechanism. Procaspase-8 activation is regulated by the ratio of unbound c-FLIPL/S to procaspase-8, which determines composition of the procaspase-8:c-FLIPL/S heterodimer. Thus, procaspase-8:c-FLIPL exhibits localized enzymatic activity and is preferentially an activator, promoting DED-mediated procaspase-8 oligomer assembly, whereas procaspase-8:c-FLIPS lacks activity and potently blocks procaspase-8 activation. This co-operative hierarchical binding model explains the dual role of c-FLIPL and crucially defines how c-FLIP isoforms differentially control cell fate.

Caspase-10 Negatively Regulates Caspase-8-Mediated Cell Death, Switching the Response to CD95L in Favor of NF-κB Activation and Cell Survival

Summary Formation of the death-inducing signaling complex (DISC) initiates extrinsic apoptosis. Caspase-8 and its regulator cFLIP control death signaling by binding to death-receptor-bound FADD. By elucidating the function of the caspase-8 homolog, caspase-10, we discover that caspase-10 negatively regulates caspase-8-mediated cell death. Significantly, we reveal that caspase-10 reduces DISC association and activation of caspase-8. Furthermore, we extend our co-operative/hierarchical binding model of caspase-8/cFLIP and show that caspase-10 does not compete with caspase-8 for binding to FADD. Utilizing caspase-8-knockout cells, we demonstrate that caspase-8 is required upstream of both cFLIP and caspase-10 and that DISC formation critically depends on the scaffold function of caspase-8. We establish that caspase-10 rewires DISC signaling to NF-κB activation/cell survival and demonstrate that the catalytic activity of caspase-10, and caspase-8, is redundant in gene induction. Thus, our data are consistent with a model in which both caspase-10 and cFLIP coordinately regulate CD95L-mediated signaling for death or survival.

Isolation, characterisation and reconstitution of cell death signalling complexes

Apoptosis and necroptosis are dependent on the formation/activation of distinct multi-protein complexes; these include the Death-Inducing Signalling Complex (DISC), apoptosome, piddosome, necrosome and ripoptosome. Despite intense research, the mechanisms that regulate assembly/function of several of these cell death signalling platforms remain to be elucidated. It is now increasingly evident that the composition and stoichiometry of components within these key signalling platforms not only determines the final signalling outcome but also the mode of cell death. Characterising these complexes can therefore provide new insights into how cell death is regulated and also how these cell death signalling platforms could potentially be targeted in the context of disease. Large multi-protein complexes can initially be separated according to their size by gel filtration or sucrose density gradient centrifugation followed by subsequent affinity-purification or immunoprecipitation. The advantage of combining these techniques is that you can assess the assembly of individual components into a complex and then assess the size and stoichiometric composition of the native functional signalling complex within a particular cell type. This, alongside reconstitution of a complex from its individual core components can therefore provide new insight into the mechanisms that regulate assembly/function of key multi-protein signalling complexes. Here, we describe the successful application of a range of methodologies that can be used to characterise the assembly of large multi-protein complexes such as the apoptosome, DISC and ripoptosome. Together with their subsequent purification and/or reconstitution, these approaches can provide novel insights into how cell death signalling platforms are regulated in both normal cell physiology and disease.

Caspase-8 tyrosine-380 phosphorylation inhibits CD95 DISC function by preventing procaspase-8 maturation and cycling within the complex

Caspase-8 is a key initiator of apoptotic cell death where it functions as the apical protease in death receptor-mediated apoptosis triggered via the death-inducing signalling complex (DISC). However, the observation that caspase-8 is upregulated in many common tumour types led to the discovery of alternative non-apoptotic, pro-survival functions, many of which are contingent on phosphorylation of a tyrosine residue (Y380) found in the linker region between the two catalytic domains of the enzyme. Furthermore, Src-mediated Y380 phosphorylation leads to increased resistance to CD95-induced apoptosis; however, the mechanism underlying this impaired response to extrinsic apoptotic stimuli has not been identified. Consequently, we have employed a number of model systems to further dissect this protective mechanism. First, using an in vitro DISC model together with recombinant procaspase-8 variants, we show that Y380 phosphorylation inhibits procaspase-8 activation at the CD95 DISC, thereby preventing downstream activation of the caspase cascade. Second, we validated this finding in a cellular context using transfected neuroblastoma cell lines deficient in caspase-8. Reconstitution of these lines with phosphomimetic-caspase-8 results in increased resistance to CD95-mediated apoptosis and enhanced cell migration. When the in vitro DISC is assembled in the presence of cell lysate, caspase-8 Y380 phosphorylation attenuates DISC activity by inhibiting procaspase-8 autoproteolytic activity but not recruitment or homodimerization of caspase-8 within the complex. Once incorporated into the DISC, phosphorylated caspase-8 is unable to be released from the complex; this inhibits further cycling and release of active catalytic subunits into the cytoplasm, thus resulting in increased apoptotic resistance. Taken together, our novel findings expand our understanding of the key mechanisms underlying the anti-apoptotic functions of caspase-8 which may act as a critical block to existing antitumour therapies. Importantly, reversal or inhibition of caspase-8 phosphorylation may prove a valuable avenue to explore for sensitization of resistant tumours to extrinsic apoptotic stimuli.

In Vitro Assembly and Analysis of the Apoptosome Complex

This protocol describes an in vitro model for studying the mechanisms of caspase activation and native apoptosome complex assembly in cell-free extracts. Active caspases in dATP-activated lysates are detected by fluorimetry using a tetrapeptide substrate (DEVD) tagged with a fluorophore (AFC), which, when released, produces a real-time readout for caspase-3 and -7 (DEVDase) activity. Gel filtration is used to isolate the apoptosome complex from the activated lysates, and assembly of Apaf-1 and caspase-9 from their monomeric forms into the multiprotein apoptosome can be confirmed via western blot. Apoptosome complex activity can be shown by incubation with exogenous procaspase-3 and -7 followed by fluorimetric bioassay (to confirm functionality of the processed effector caspases) and/or western blotting (for detection of cleaved caspase-3 and -7). A method for preparation of free procaspases for the bioassay is also described.

Activation, Isolation, and Analysis of the Death-Inducing Signaling Complex

This protocol describes activation, isolation, and analysis of the CD95 (APO-1/Fas) death-inducing signaling complex (DISC) using affinity purification. Activation is achieved using a biotin-labeled anti-CD95 antibody and the native DISC complex is captured using streptavidin beads. This approach minimizes both the number of steps involved and any potential nonspecific interactions or cross-reactivity of antibodies commonly seen in immunoprecipitations using unlabeled antibodies and protein A/G beads. Composition of the isolated complex is analyzed via western blot to identify known DISC components, and dimerization-induced autocatalytic processing of procaspase-8 at the DISC can be confirmed by detection of caspase-8 cleavage products. The potential for DISC-associated caspase-8 to activate the caspase cascade can be determined by measuring caspase-8-dependent cleavage of the fluorigenic substrate Ac-IETD.AFC, or by performing a bioassay using exogenous protein substrates.