Mike Brown

Comfort Zone: Model or metaphor?

The comfort zone model is widespread within adventure education literature. It is based on the belief that when placed in a stressful situation people will respond by overcoming their fear and therefore grow as individuals. This model is often presented to participants prior to activities with a highly perceived sense of risk and challenge which arouses strong emotional and physical responses to novel tasks (e.g., ropes courses or rock climbing activities). Students are encouraged to think about ‘stretching themselves’ by moving outside their comfort zone, to expand their preconceived limits and by inference learn (and become better people). This paper explores theories from cognitive and social psychology, based on the work of Piaget and Festinger respectively, that underpin the comfort zone model. The perpetuation of this model which uses risk to promote situations of disequilibrium / dissonance does not find strong support in educational literature. It is therefore suggested that the comfort zone model be reframed as a metaphor, for possible discussion post activity, rather than being used as a model to underpin programming and pedagogy in adventure education settings.

Transfer: Outdoor adventure education’s Achilles heel? Changing participation as a viable option

In this article I question whether a focus on transfer within outdoor adventure education (OAE) is desirable and if it is worth continuing to emphasize as a central construct. I argue that transfer is a highly problematic concept that has been difficult to empirically substantiate beyond controlled experimental settings. Given the ambiguity of the research findings, and changes in teaching and learning theories, I contend that OAE would be better served by focussing on assisting students to experience and understand the dynamics of social interaction rather than acquiring knowledge that can supposedly be transferred across contexts. This paper invites discussion around ideas from the situative perspective that focus on participation and the dynamics of social interaction rather than the current ‘passive’ transfer metaphor. The issues raised in the paper challenge existing OAE practices and encourage greater connections to the broader community in an effort to aid students’ learning.

Reconceptualising outdoor adventure education: Activity in search of an appropriate theory.

Experiential approaches to learning underpin teaching and learning strategies in outdoor adventure education (OAE). Recent critiques of experiential learning have problematised the individualistic and overly cognitive focus of this approach which creates binaries between experience-reflection and the learner-situation. This paper summarises these critiques and investigates the possibilities made available by understanding OAE from a socio-cultural perspective. Consideration of OAE students as participants in a highly orchestrated community of practice places learning, and observable change, within a socio-cultural frame rather than as primarily a function of cognitive processes within the individual. This position takes seriously the claims made by practitioners of ‘seeing evidence of change’ and researchers who raise questions about the validity of ‘generalised claims’ by placing greater emphasis on the situated nature of learning and acting. Moving beyond conceptions of the learner as an autonomous ‘processor’ of experiences, who is capable of generating context free knowledge, has implications for existing OAE theory and practice.

“Let's go round the circle:” How verbal facilitation can function as a means of direct instruction

The facilitation of experiences through group discussion is well documented in adventure education literature. Using an ethnomethodological approach this article draws attention to how the leader in these facilitation sessions structures the discussions. It is argued that the current practice of facilitation based on verbal discussions conducted in a circular arrangement can function as a form of direct instruction. It is suggested that this form of facilitation offers limited opportunities for student creativity and favors leader sponsored accounts of student experiences. This research is significant in that it uses recorded data from facilitation sessions; it does not present an idealized or exemplary account of how the discussions should occur. The issues of power and knowledge, and in particular whose knowledge is privileged, are not peripheral for experiential educators. These findings question the positioning of the facilitator in the literature and call for a reappraisal of the way that verbal facilitation is commonly practiced.

Outdoor learning in Aotearoa New Zealand: voices past, present, and future

Many of the principles and practices that have influenced outdoor education in Aotearoa New Zealand find their genesis in the United Kingdom and North America. In recent times, many of these foundational assumptions have been called into question. This paper highlights how emerging ‘local’ voices are questioning and reframing how outdoor education is conceptualised and practiced. In large part this is due to a sense of distinctiveness borne from the bicultural foundations that underpin governance and policy-making. This paper explores how outdoor educators are developing pedagogies that acknowledge the particularities of our context, particularly the bicultural foundation of Aotearoa New Zealand. The paper highlights how social and cultural influences shape educational policy and how outdoor educators are responding, both theoretically and practically, to meet the needs of learners in an increasingly diverse society.

Paraphrases and summaries: A means of clarification or a vehicle for articulating a preferred version of student accounts?

The use of group discussions as a means to facilitate learning from experiences is well documented in adventure education literature. Priest and Naismith (1993,) assert that the use of the circular discussion method, where the leader poses questions to the participants, is the most common form of facilitation in adventure education. This paper draws on transcripts of facilitation sessions to argue that the widely advocated practice of leader summaries or paraphrases of student responses in these sessions functions as a potential mechanism to control and sponsor particular knowledge(s). Using transcripts from recorded facilitation sessions the analysis focuses on how the leader paraphrases the students’ responses and how these paraphrases or ‘formulations’ function to modify or exclude particular aspects of the students’ responses. I assert that paraphrasing is not simply a neutral activity that merely functions to clarify a student response. Rather, it is a subtle means by which the leader of the session can, often inadvertently or unknowingly, alter the student’s reply with the consequence of favouring particular knowledge(s). Revealing the subtle work that leader paraphrases perform is of importance for educators who claim to provide genuine opportunities for students to learn from their experience.

Enough of Ronald and Mickey: Focusing on learning in outdoor education

Fifteen years ago Loynes expressed concern that market-place values were detrimentally impacting on the provision of outdoor education experiences. As tertiary educators with an interest in the impact of globalization on outdoor education, we have sought to extend Loynes’ use of McDonaldization by drawing on Bryman’s conceptual framework of Disneyization in order to more deeply understand patterns of contemporary consumption. We draw on field visits to investigate the degree to which these two concepts have permeated the provision of recreational providers that serve schools. We contend that there is evidence that Loynes’ concerns remain valid, but we suggest that more recent discourses around ‘place’ may offer viable and supportable alternatives to ‘consumption-oriented’ outdoor education practice.

Intersections between place, sustainability and transformative outdoor experiences

Engaging students in positive experiences in and for the natural world is perhaps one of the most pressing issues for educators today. The challenges presented by unsustainable practices require reflection on how transformation, of individuals and of communities, might lead to a more sustainable future. In this article we explore intersections between transformation, sustainability and place, and we examine outdoor learning experiences that might assist in the promotion of sustainability. The paper is framed by three guiding questions: what are the goals of transformation and which/whose standards determine such goals; how can principles of sustainability act as a guiding framework for transformation; and what types of outdoor experiences might meaningfully contribute to such sustainability-focused transformation? This article draws on teachers’ perspectives concerning the value of place(s) in outdoor learning. The authors suggest that the use of a framework of sustainability may facilitate greater intentionality, on the part of place-responsive educators, thus improving the opportunities for improved human–nature relations.

The Evolution of Experiential Learning Theory: Tracing Lines of Research in the JEE

This essay introduces a collection of past articles from the Journal of Experiential Education (JEE) focused on the concept of experiential learning. It outlines the historical trajectory of the concept beginning with human relations training practices beginning in 1946, as it came to be understood as a naturally occurring psychological process and a grounding for pedagogical reforms. The eight articles included in the issue reflect the way JEE authors have contended with problems arising from the concept’s departure from its origins in practice. We suggest that experiential learning’s evolution into a general theory was accomplished by decoupling it from its roots in a particular social practice and ideology, and then focusing on the concept’s technical problems. It is now important for researchers to revisit assumptions underpinning current theory and practice, situate research on experiential learning in wider practical and scholarly traditions, and develop new vocabularies concerning the relationship between experience and learning in educational programs.

Disneyization and the Provision of Leisure Experiences

This chapter outlines a particular theoretical framework called Disneyization and uses this set of concepts to examine leisure patterns. Disneyization’s principal argument is that the characteristics of Disney theme parks are coming to dominate society, as they incorporate performed, themed narratives into consumer service experiences. What distinguishes Disneyized arrangements from other bought leisure is that customers can “eat, play, and shop” in the same “storied” location; everything needed to have a good time is found in one place. Armed with some foundational social theory on globalization and the four features of Disneyization, this chapter explores the degree to which a variety of leisure experiences can be considered to be Disneyized. The analysis continues with a discussion about how Disneyization can be seen to have both positive and negative implications for leisure in the twenty-first century.