Muzafer Sherif

Superordinate Goals in the Reduction of Intergroup Conflict

This paper summarizes an experimental study on intergroup relations, with emphasis on the reduction of conflict between groups. In the first phase, two groups were established independently by introducing specified conditions for interaction; in the second phase, the groups were brought into functional contact in conditions perceived by the members of the respective groups as competitive and frustrating. Members developed unfavorable attitudes and derogatory stereotypes of the other group; social distance developed to the point of mutual avoidance, even in pleasant activities. In the final reducing tension between groups was the introduction of goals which were compellingly shared by members of the groups and which required the collaborative efforts of all.

Status in Experimentally Produced Groups

In a study of intra-and intergroup relations utilizing a combination of observational and laboratory methods, two small groups were experimentally produced as a consequence of interaction among individuals. This was done under controlled conditions embodying goals that had a common appeal and that called for interdependent activities for their attainment. It is demonstrated that, when group members face an unstructured task in which they are sufficiently motivated, their estimates of each others performance are influenced by the status each occupies in the social hierarchy. This finding shows th feasibility of assessing the effects of group interaction by means of laboratory techniques.

The self and reference groups: meeting ground of individual and group approaches.

The problem area of this monograph concerns man’s perception and conception of himself as an individual living in a physical and social world. The considerations, which have led social philosophers, psychologists, and social scientists again and again to a concept of self or ego, may be broadly summarized as follows : first, characteristic “consistency” of the person’s behavior from one situation to another; and, second, the experienced and observed “continuity” of this consistency over a time span. The pictures of human motivation based on the studies dealing with the effects and relative importance of various single motives (hunger, sex, sleep, security) provide bits of items that sorely need the integrating component that runs through them all. For example, human sexual activity (within certain limits) is not only a problem of bodily homeostasis, it is a t the same time a problem of establishing secure and reliable personal ties or a problem of personal conquest. Likewise, beyond the level of bodily subsistence, activities engaged in to satisfy hunger involve, a t the same time, problems related to congenial companionship, distinction, and status. In all these activities engaged in under the goal-directed promptings of this or that particular motive, there is the involvement of the person with characteristic claim or self-picture of the individual that provides the unique consistency of the individual from situation to situation. The insistence on this involvement of the self-picture of the individual in so many diverse activities and situations is an insightful anticipation on the part of “personalistic” psychologists such as Wilhelm Stern and Mary Calkins. However the great task now is to go beyond these insights hitherto advanced only with occasional observations and incomplete case histories. The objective of the present paper is to move toward some aspects of these ‘(next steps” by operationally demonstrating some relevant dimensions of this psychological consistency-inconsistency problem in the area of individual-group relationship. An attempt will be made to establish, on the basis of research findings, that the concept of reference groups, as will be defined and discussed in relation to the self concept, provide the necessary meeting ground of individual and group approaches in handling the consistency or inconsistency of the individual in his human relations.

Interdisciplinary Relationships in the Social Sciences.

In what case do you like reading so much? What about the type of the interdisciplinary relationships in the social sciences book? The needs to read? Well, everybody has their own reason why should read some books. Mostly, it will relate to their necessity to get knowledge from the book and want to read just to get entertainment. Novels, story book, and other entertaining books become so popular this day. Besides, the scientific books will also be the best reason to choose, especially for the students, teachers, doctors, businessman, and other professions who are fond of reading.

Sociology and Education

time is covered in so little space, it is probable that the main lines of thought are familiar to students of this field. Still, the presentation is clear and, perhaps, all the more forceful because of the lack of detail. The relation of the city to the country and the fiscal policies which exemplify this relationship are described. The volume should be particularly useful as collateral reading for young students of city government who are sometimes slow to grasp the basic relationships which are treated here. The study on which the publication is based was made possible by Tulane University. LEE S. GREENE University of Tennessee

Group Dynamics: Research and Theory.@@@Groups in Harmony and Tension: An Integration of Studies on Intergroup Relations.

No wonder you activities are, reading will be always needed. It is not only to fulfil the duties that you need to finish in deadline time. Reading will encourage your mind and thoughts. Of course, reading will greatly develop your experiences about everything. Reading groups in harmony and tension an integration of studies on intergroup relations is also a way as one of the collective books that gives many advantages. The advantages are not only for you, but for the other peoples with those meaningful benefits.