N. Van Vliet

Empty forests, empty stomachs? Bushmeat and livelihoods in the Congo and Amazon Basins

SUMMARY Protein from forest wildlife is crucial to rural food security and livelihoods across the tropics. The harvest of animals such as tapir, duikers, deer, pigs, peccaries, primates and larger rodents, birds and reptiles provides benefits to local people worth millions of USS annually and represents around 6 million tonnes of animals extracted yearly. Vulnerability to hunting varies, with some species sustaining populations in heavily hunted secondary habitats, while others require intact forests with minimal harvesting to maintain healthy populations. Some species or groups have been characterized as ecosystem engineers and ecological keystone species. They affect plant distribution and structure ecosystems, through seed dispersal and predation, grazing, browsing, rooting and other mechanisms. Global attention has been drawn to their loss through debates regarding bushmeat, the “empty forest” syndrome and their ecological importance. However, information on the harvest remains fragmentary, along with understanding of ecological, socioeconomic and cultural dimensions. Here we assess the consequences, both for ecosystems and local livelihoods, of the loss of these species in the Amazon and Congo basins.

Beyond protein intake: bushmeat as source of micronutrients in the Amazon

Wild meat is critical for the food security and income of millions of people, especially for poor rural households. Its role as a primary source of macronutrients worldwide has been recognized, but there have been few attempts to evaluate the contribution of bushmeat consumption to micronutrient intake. This is so particularly in the context of nutritional transitions induced by modernization and globalization. Here, we calculated the role of bushmeat as a source of micronutrients in the diets of urban and periurban inhabitants within the Tres Fronteras (Peru, Brazil, Colombia) region in the Amazon. We gathered food intake data from 35 households using 3-day 24-h food recalls combined with food weighing. Additionally, we interviewed 105 households on food consumption frequency. Our results indicate that 14.3% of the households consumed bushmeat, which represented approximately 32% of their caloric intake, 72% of consumed protein, and 77% of iron. Typically, households consuming bushmeat presented higher a nutritional status, i. e., lower intake of carbohydrates (-10%) and higher intake of proteins (+46%), iron (+151%), and zinc (+23%), than households not consuming bushmeat. Most of the sampled households did not achieve standard nutritional requirements for calories (94%), fiber, vitamin C, or iron (97%) per adult per day. None of the households achieved the recommended daily intake for calcium. Households consuming bushmeat consumed statistically significantly higher levels of iron, zinc, and vitamin C than households that did not eat bushmeat. The latter consumed an excess of 31% calories from processed foods per adult per day, and lower amounts of iron (-60%) and zinc (-19%). We argue that households not consuming bushmeat are at greater risk of anemia in the short run and other chronic health problems in the long run.

Sustainable Wildlife Management and Legal Commercial Use of Bushmeat in Colombia: The Resource Remains at the Cross-Road

SUMMARY Most countries in the Amazon have no clear policy frameworks to provide a legal path for sustainable wildlife management (SWM), including the commercial use of bushmeat. In Colombia, despite efforts to provide more local autonomy in the management of natural resources and the openness towards the sustainable use of wildlife since the 1970s, there are still a number of legal and technical impediments that need to be addressed. In this research, we first compiled evidence of the current illegal trade of bushmeat to justify the need to clarify legal frameworks regulating the activity. Then, we explore the opportunities for legal commercial hunting by rural communities and highlight current bottlenecks. Finally, we report on lessons learnt from past initiatives of sustainable bushmeat use in the country. In our conclusion, we provide some practical recommendations to promote the sustainable use of wildlife, clarify the definition of commercial use for subsistence purposes and legalize sustainable local bushmeat trade by rural communities.

The role of wildlife for food security in Central Africa: A threat to biodiversity?

Meat from wild terrestrial or semi-terrestrial animals, termed „bushmeat‟, is a significant source of animal protein in Central African countries, and a crucial component of food security and livelihoods in rural areas. Estimates of bushmeat consumption across the Congo Basin range between 1 million tonnes (Wilkie and Carpenter 1999) and 5 million tonnes (Fa et al. 2003) and harvest rates are estimated to range from 23 to 897 kg/km 2 /year (Nasi et al. 2008). Many sustainability assessments focusing on tropical forest wildlife in the region have warned about the increasing unsustainability of hunting and associated ecological impacts (e.g. examples within Bennett and Robinson, 2000).The term “value chain” is useful to understand the activities involved in bringing a product from the forest, through processing and production, to delivery to final consumers and ultimately disposal (Kaplinsky & morris, 2000). Value chain analysis is a conceptual framework for mapping and categorizing the economic, social and environmental processes. It helps to understand how and where enterprises and institutions are positioned in chains, and to identify opportunities and possible leverage points for upgrading. This analysis encompasses the organization, coordination, equity, power relationships, linkages and governance between organizations and actors. Photo 7.1: Kola nuts (Cola acuminata) for sale in a market in Kisangani, DRC

What do we know about the life-history traits of widely hunted tropical mammals?

We synthesize information on parameters useful for managing the hunting of two common mammal species that are important for local people in the Neotropics and Africa: Cuniculus paca and Philantomba monticola , respectively. We highlight the scarcity of data available on the parameters needed to manage these two species sustainably. As most of the studies were conducted > 40 years ago, we stress the need to supplement the information available using methodological and technical innovations. In particular, we call for new assessments covering the possible variations in parameter values across the species’ distribution ranges, and covering various anthropogenic contexts, to test density-dependent and compensatory processes that may explain the resilience of these species to hunting.

The Use of Traditional Ecological Knowledge in the Context of Participatory Wildlife Management: Examples From Indigenous Communities in Puerto Nariño, Amazonas-Colombia

Wildlife conservation is increasingly approached through socioecological lenses, where communities are fully involved and local development is integrated in conservation action. In this context, local beliefs and practices based on traditional knowledge are a crucial source of information for the development of sustainable management practices. Indeed, modern forest-dependent people have partially inherited from the traditional knowledge of their ancestors and continue to develop modern knowledge through more contemporary local innovations, and practices, which also become the part and parcel of their culture. Understanding how local beliefs and practices still influence the use of biodiversity is essential to incorporate traditional knowledge and practice into sustainable use and conservation policies. In this chapter we describe two examples of how traditional ecological knowledge may be incorporated in more formal management plans for wildlife in an indigenous community called Puerto Narino, Amazonas, Colombia: (1) The understanding of local taboos on wildlife to discuss management rules; (2) The traditional practice of calling animals and their use in the context of participatory monitoring.

Is urban bushmeat trade in Colombia really insignificant

The bushmeat trade in ecosystems in South America other than those within the Amazon basin is presumed to be insignificant, as alternative sources of protein (e.g. beef, chicken, fish) are considered to be more readily available in non-moist forests. However, studies and confiscation reports from countries such as Colombia suggest that bushmeat is consumed in a variety of ecosystems, although the nature of market chains, particularly in urban areas, is still unknown. We studied the urban bushmeat trade in markets in the five main ecoregions in Colombia. We recorded a total of 85 species, the most frequently traded being the paca Cuniculus paca, red brocket deer Mazama americana, grey brocket deer Mazama gouazoubira, capybara Hydrochoerus hydrochaeris, armadillo Dasypus spp. and black agouti Dasyprocta fuliginosa. Most sales of wild meat occur through clandestine channels and involve a limited number of stakeholders. Bushmeat is a luxury product in urban areas of the Caribbean, the Pacific and the Andean regions. Further work is needed to quantify and monitor the volumes of bushmeat traded, comprehend motivations, explore ways of reducing threats, and engage with stakeholders to organize legal and sustainable use of bushmeat.

Use and trade of bushmeat in Colombia: Relevance to rural livelihoods

• Except for the Andean region, bushmeat trade chains are a reality in all regions of Colombia. These chains are usually short and respond to local trade dynamics. • In the Caribbean region, bushmeat trade chains cross different administrative boundaries, thus routes operate at greater distances. • Bushmeat continues to play an important role in the local livelihoods of many communities in Colombia. • The level of dependency on bushmeat increases in rural areas that are located far from urban settlements, because of the difficultly in accessing other proteins and the lack of alternative productive activities. • Bushmeat consumption in Colombia is also associated with deep-rooted local cultural traditions. • The widespread existence of bushmeat trade chains in the different regions of Colombia, despite being illegal, highlights the need to review current legal frameworks. • Simplifying the requirements for the legal trade of surplus meat from non protected and resilient species by rural communities may be the way forward. However, there is a need to improve the capacities to monitor the use of wild meat and agree on the local governance that should be responsible for ensuring/controlling for sustainable use.