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Neocortex size predicts deception rate in primates.

Human brain organization is built upon a more ancient adaptation, the large brain of simian primates: on average, monkeys and apes have brains twice as large as expected for mammals of their size, principally as a result of neocortical enlargement. Testing the adaptive benefit of this evolutionary specialization depends on finding an association between brain size and function in primates. However, most cognitive capacities have been assessed in only a restricted range of species under laboratory conditions. Deception of conspecifics in social circumstances is an exception, because a corpus of field data is available that encompasses all major lines of the primate radiation. We show that the use of deception within the primates is well predicted by the neocortical volume, when observer effort is controlled for; by contrast, neither the size of the rest of the brain nor the group size exert significant effects. These findings are consistent with the hypothesis that neocortical expansion has been driven by social challenges among the primates. Complex social manipulations such as deception are thought to be based upon rapid learning and extensive social knowledge; thus, learning in social contexts may be constrained by neocortical size.

Manual dexterity in the gorilla: bimanual and digit role differentiation in a natural task

Abstract The manipulative actions of mountain gorillas Gorilla g. beringei were examined in the context of foraging on hard-to-process plant foods in the field, in particular those used in tackling thistle Carduus nyassanus. A repertoire of 72 functionally distinct manipulative actions was recorded. Many of these actions were used in several variants of grip, finger(s) and movement path, both by different individuals and by the same individual at different times. The repertoire appears somewhat greater than that observed in comparable studies of monkeys, but a far more striking difference is found in the use of differentiated actions in concert. Mountain gorillas routinely and frequently deal with problems that involve: (1) bimanual role differentiation, with the two hands taking different roles but synchronized in time and space, and (2) digit role differentiation, with independent control of parts of the same hand used for separate purposes at the same time. The independent control that allows these abilities, so crucial to human manual constructional ability, is apparently general in African great apes. Role differentiation, between and within the hand, is evidently a primitive characteristic in the human arsenal of skills.

Ranging behaviour and time budgets of male wood mice Apodemus sylvaticus in different habitats and seasons

Abstract Radiotelemetry was used to measure the range areas, activity patterns and time budgets of 21 adult male wood mice (Apodemus sylvaticus) between May 1991 and August 1992. The study investigated variation in range, total distance travelled, speed of movement and time budgets between wood mice in the nonbreeding and breeding seasons in a deciduous woodland (n = 8 and 6 respectively). We also examined habitat differences by estimating these same parameters for wood mice inhabiting maritime sand-dunes in the breeding season (n = 7). Insufficient males of an appropriate mass for radiotracking were captured to study the sand-dune mice in the nonbreeding season. Significant variation was found across both season and site. In the breeding season, in woodland, range areas were 5 times larger than during the nonbreeding season. Wood mice on the sand-dunes exploited ranges 28 times greater than their woodland counterparts. The pattern of variation in range area was parallelled by significant differences in total distances and average speeds travelled per night. Diurnal activity, c. 60 min day−1, was frequently recorded, at both sites, but only, in the breeding season, which was attributed to the need to forage in order to maintain energy balance. The comparatively lower availability of food on the sand-dunes was considered the main factor explaining the greater range area, total distance moved, speed travelled and level of activity of animals at this site.

The ontogeny of manual skill in wild chimpanzees: Evidence from feeding on the fruit of Saba florida

When chimpanzees eat Saba florida fruit, the necessary processing requires extraction from within an inedible matrix, involving considerable manual dexterity at several stages, and typically elicits strong manual laterality: all these features suggest that it is a complex task for chimpanzees. Focal observations were made on 14 mother-infant pairs. Although infants gained fruit pulp and fruit parts from the mother, and reduced the need for bimanual coordination by feeding on still-attached fruit, they nevertheless used more varied procedures than adults to extract pulp. In contrast, adults often detached and transported several fruits at once, and used bimanual methods to open fruits. By 2 years old, infants were able to process whole fruits, but it was not until 4 years that they gained mastery of the full adult technique. Many of these changes can be understood in terms of maturation of manual abilities, including precision gripping, bimanual role differentiation and digit role differentiation. Social influences are also present, including synchronous feeding, close attention to the mother, and food-solicitation and sharing. We argue that adaptations for optimization of nutrition have the incidental consequence of scaffolding the learning process for the infant.

ESTIMATING THE COMPLEXITY OF ANIMAL BEHAVIOUR: HOW MOUNTAIN GORILLAS EAT THISTLES

Mountain gorillas use elaborate, multi-stage procedures for dealing with plant defences. This paper investigates the use of mathematically-inspired, informational measures to gauge the complexity of one of these tasks, eating thistle Carduus nyassanus , from field observations of 38 adults and juveniles. Behaviour was analysed at two levels, a detailed, movementbased description of the form of actions, and an organizational description of techniques that were composed of a series of many actions. Complexity, as measured by counting the sizes of behavioural repertoires, correlated at the two levels. Repertoires were shown to be incomplete, but the rates of cumulative increase in actions differed between tasks. Thistle eating was the most complex, and apparently involved many more actions than even chimpanzee tool-use. Techniques were highly selective arrangements of actions, so that their organization (sequence, bimanual coordination, hierarchical structure) reflected cognitive capacity. Although ideally it would preferable to estimate complexity of task organization, this may seldom be feasible, and was not in this case. Instead, the length of a regularly occurring sequence of actions may be the best practical estimate of an underlying complexity of mental process. Confidence in this measure will be increased if it broadly agrees with other, independent estimates of task complexity; in the case of gorilla plant processing, both the size of repertoire of functionally distinct actions and the degree of lateral specialization were, like sequence length, greater for thistle processing than for other tasks studied to date.

Seasonal variation in the resting metabolic rate of male wood mice Apodemus sylvaticus from two contrasting habitats 15 km apart

Abstract Diurnal and nocturnal resting metabolic rates of winter- and summer-acclimatized adult male wood mice Apodemus sylvaticus from two adjacent populations, 15 km apart, were measured. One population lived in deciduous woodland, and experienced a narrower daily range of temperatures than the second population, which inhabited maritime sand-dunes. Ambient temperature and body mass had significant effects on the resting metabolism of mice, excluding winter-acclimatized sand-dune animals where only temperature explained significant amounts of the observed variation. Only in this latter group could a thermoneutral zone be determined, with a lower critical temperature of ca. 25 °C and resting metabolism of 0.155 W. Nocturnal resting metabolic rates were significantly greater than diurnal levels. Winter acclimatization was associated with reductions in thermal conductance and resting metabolism, thus minimizing energy expenditure at rest. Site differences in thermoregulatory strategies were only found in winter, thermal conductances remained similar but mice from the sand-dunes had significantly lower metabolic rates than those from the woodland. Winter acclimatization in wood mice was influenced by factors in addition to photoperiod. Intra-specific and individual variations in resting metabolism, as shown in this study, potentially have a pronounced effect on the daily energy expenditure of a free-living animal.

Apparent Absorption Efficiency and Gut Morphometry of Wood Mice, Apodemus sylvaticus, from Two Distinct Populations with Different Diets

Interpopulation variation in the diet of the wood mouse, Apode‐mus sylvaticus, is well documented. In this study, we examined the gut morphology and apparent absorption efficiencies of two populations of wood mice whose diet in the field was known to differ. One population inhabited sand dunes, where food availability was relatively low and the diet was dominated by invertebrates. The other population lived in deciduous woodland, with greater food availability and a diet consisting primarily of seeds. Wood mice from the woodland had longer small intestines and total digestive tract lengths than mice from the sand dunes. However, these differences had no effect on the apparent absorption efficiencies of dry mass or energy when the mice were fed mealworms, wheat grain, or All‐Bran diets (apparent energy absorption efficiencies of 88%, 89%, and 65%, respectively). The population differences in gut morphometry may be linked to different resource availabilities at the two field sites.

Multi-drug therapy in chronic condition multimorbidity: a systematic review

BACKGROUND Older populations often suffer from multimorbidity and guidelines for each condition are often associated with recommended drug therapy management. Yet, how different and specific multimorbidity is associated with number and type of multi-drug therapies in general populations is unknown. AIM The aim of this systematic review was to synthesize the current evidence on patterns of multi-drug prescribing in family practice. METHODS A systematic review on six common chronic conditions: diabetes mellitus, cardiovascular disease, cerebrovascular disease, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), osteoarthritis and depression was conducted, with a focus on studies which looked at any potential combination of two or more multimorbidity. Studies were identified from searches of MEDLINE, EMBASE, PsychINFO, the Allied and Complementary Medicine Database (AMED) and the Health Management Information Consortium (HMIC) databases from 1960 to 2013. RESULTS A total of eleven articles were selected based on study criteria. Our review identified very few specific studies which had explicitly investigated the association between multimorbidity and multi-drug therapy. Relevant chronic conditions literature showed nine observational studies and two reviews of comorbid depression drug treatment. Most (seven) of the articles had focused on the chronic condition and comorbid depression and whether antidepressant management had been optimal or not, while four studies focused on other multimorbidities mainly heart failure, COPD and diabetes. CONCLUSIONS Very few studies have investigated associations between specific multimorbidity and multi-drug therapy, and most currently focus on chronic disease comorbid depression outcomes. Further research needs to identify this area as key priority for older populations who are prescribed high levels of multiple drug therapy.

Human Givens Therapy: The Evidence Base

This paper reviews the current evidence base for human givens therapy in the context of mental health. A systematic literature search was conducted from which it is concluded that the evidence base for human givens therapy is currently limited: most evidence proffered is expert opinion supported with brief case studies or anecdotal evidence, with the exception of two descriptive studies both concerning trauma and the rewind technique. This paper calls for further research to be undertaken to examine the effectiveness of human givens therapy and for mainstream mental health, counselling and psychotherapy journals to provide space for healthy debate.

Assessing the effectiveness of the “human givens” approach in treating depression: a quasi experimental study in primary care

Purpose – This paper aims to present the findings of research commissioned by a Primary Care Trust in the UK to assess the implementation of a new pilot Human Givens mental health service (HGS) within primary care. Design/methodology/approach – Participating General Practitioners practices were designated as either “Human givens” or “Control” practices. The study focused on service users with mild to moderate depressed mood measured using HADS. The well-being of these participants was examined at the point of referral, and after four, eight and 12 months using three well-being questionnaires. Findings – The results revealed that emotional well-being significantly improved during the first four months following referral for both groups and this improvement was maintained up to and including one year post referral. Compared to the Control group Human givens therapy was found to be of shorter duration, lasting one or two sessions compared to standard treatment which lasted on average four sessions. Originali...