Nadine Reichhart

Effect of bestrophin-1 on L-type Ca2+ channel activity depends on the Ca2+ channel beta-subunit.

Bests vitelliforme macular degeneration is an inherited retinal degeneration associated with a reduction of the light-peak in the patients electro-oculogram. Bestrophin-1, the product of the disease-promoting/forming gene can function as regulator of voltage-dependent L-type Ca(2+) channels in the retinal pigment epithelium (RPE). Since mice deficient for either β4-subunits or Ca(V)1.3 subunits show reduced light-peaks, the regulatory function of bestrophin-1 on heterologously expressed Ca(2+) channels composed of the pore-forming Ca(V)1.3 and the auxiliary β4-subunit was analyzed. Precipitation of β4-subunits led to co-precipitation with bestrophin-1 and subsequent analysis of subcellular localization showed co-localization of bestrophin-1, Ca(V)1.3 and β4-subunit in the cell membrane. Ca(V)1.3 currents in the presence of β4-subunits and bestrophin-1 showed accelerated time-dependent activation and decreased current density compared to currents measured in the absence of bestrophin-1. In the presence of the β3-subunit, which is not expressed in the RPE bestrophin-1 did not modulate Ca(V)1.3 activity. Deletion of a cluster of proline-rich motifs in the C-terminus of bestrophin-1 reduced its co-immuno precipitation with the β4-subunit and strongly reduced the Ca(V)1.3 activity. Cells co-expressing bestrophin-1 lacking the proline-rich motifs and Ca(V)1.3 subunits showed less efficient trafficking of bestrophin-1 into the cell membrane. In summary, we conclude that bestrophin-1 modulates L-type channels of the RPE via proline-rich motif-dependent interaction with β4-subunits. A disturbed interaction reduces the currents of the Ca(V)1.3 subunits. This mechanism could open new ways to understand changes in the patients electro-oculogram and functional alterations of the RPE leading to retinal degeneration.

Interaction of bestrophin-1 and Ca2+ channel β-subunits: identification of new binding domains on the bestrophin-1 C-terminus.

Bestrophin-1 modulates currents through voltage-dependent L-type Ca2+ channels by physically interacting with the β-subunits of Ca2+ channels. The main function of β-subunits is to regulate the number of pore-forming CaV-subunits in the cell membrane and modulate Ca2+ channel currents. To understand the influence of full-length bestrophin-1 on β-subunit function, we studied binding and localization of bestrophin-1 and Ca2+ channel subunits, together with modulation of CaV1.3 Ca2+ channels currents. In heterologeous expression, bestrophin-1 showed co-immunoprecipitation with either, β3-, or β4-subunits. We identified a new highly conserved cluster of proline-rich motifs on the bestrophin-1 C-terminus between amino acid position 468 and 486, which enables possible binding to SH3-domains of β-subunits. A bestrophin-1 that lacks these proline-rich motifs (ΔCT-PxxP bestrophin-1) showed reduced efficiency to co-immunoprecipitate with β3 and β4-subunits. In the presence of ΔCT-PxxP bestrophin-1, β4-subunits and CaV1.3 subunits partly lost membrane localization. Currents from CaV1.3 subunits were modified in the presence of β4-subunit and wild-type bestrophin-1: accelerated time-dependent activation and reduced current density. With ΔCTPxxP bestrophin-1, currents showed the same time-dependent activation as with wild-type bestrophin-1, but the current density was further reduced due to decreased number of Ca2+ channels proteins in the cell membrane. In summary, we described new proline-rich motifs on bestrophin-1 C-terminus, which help to maintain the ability of β-subunits to regulate surface expression of pore-forming CaV Ca2+-channel subunits.

The Role of Bestrophin-1 in Intracellular Ca 2+ Signaling

Mutations in the BEST1 gene lead to a variety of retinal degenerations, among them Bests vitelliforme macular degeneration. To clarify the mechanism of the disease, the understanding of the function of BEST1 gene product, bestrophin-1, is mandatory. In overexpression studies bestrophin-1 appeared to function as a Ca(2+)-dependent Cl channel. On the other hand, bestrophin-1 is able to participate in intracellular Ca(2+) signaling. Endogenously expressed bestrophin-1 largely localized to the cytosolic compartment close to the basolateral membrane of the retinal pigment epithelium (RPE) as it can be shown using differential centrifugation, immunohistochemistry, and transmission electron microscopy. To elucidate a cytosolic function of bestrophin-1, we explored the store-operated Ca(2+) entry in short-time cultured porcine RPE cells. Depletion of cytosolic Ca(2+)stores by SERCA inhibition led to activation of Orai-1 Ca(2+) channels. This resulted in an influx of extracellular Ca(2+) into the cell which was reduced when bestrophin-1 expression was knocked down using siRNA techniques. Quantification of Ca(2+) which can be released from cytosolic Ca(2+) stores revealed that after reduction of bestrophin-1 expression less Ca(2+) is stored in ER Ca(2+) stores. Thus, bestrophin-1 functions as an intracellular Cl channel which helps to accumulate and to release Ca(2+) from stores by conducting the counterion for Ca(2+).

Placental growth factor and its potential role in diabetic retinopathy and other ocular neovascular diseases

The role of vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF), including in retinal vascular diseases, has been well studied, and pharmacological blockade of VEGF is the gold standard of treatment for neovascular age‐related macular degeneration, retinal vein occlusion and diabetic macular oedema. Placental growth factor (PGF, previously known as PlGF), a homologue of VEGF, is a multifunctional peptide associated with angiogenesis‐dependent pathologies in the eye and non‐ocular conditions. Animal studies using genetic modification and pharmacological treatment have demonstrated a mechanistic role for PGF in pathological angiogenesis. Inhibition decreases neovascularization and microvascular abnormalities across different models, including oxygen‐induced retinopathy, laser‐induced choroidal neovascularization and in diabetic mice exhibiting retinopathies. High levels of PGF have been found in the vitreous of patients with diabetic retinopathy. Despite these strong animal data, the exact role of PGF in pathological angiogenesis in retinal vascular diseases remains to be defined, and the benefits of PGF‐specific inhibition in humans with retinal neovascular diseases and macular oedema remain controversial. Comparative effectiveness research studies in patients with diabetic retinal disease have shown that treatment that inhibits both VEGF and PGF may provide superior outcomes in certain patients compared with treatment that inhibits only VEGF. This review summarizes current knowledge of PGF, including its relationship to VEGF and its role in pathological angiogenesis in retinal diseases, and identifies some key unanswered questions about PGF that can serve as a pathway for future basic, translational and clinical research.

B-Raf inhibition in conjunctival melanoma cell lines with PLX 4720.

Purpose Mutations in the gene coding for the kinase B-Raf are associated with tumour growth in conjunctival melanoma. The purpose of this study is to explore effects of pharmacological B-Raf inhibition in conjunctival melanoma cell lines. Methods The B-Raf genotypes were assessed by PCR and subsequent sequencing. Cytotoxicity, cell viability, proliferation, apoptosis rate and phosphorylation rate of ERK and Akt were analysed in three different conjunctival melanoma cell lines under the influence of the B-Raf inhibitor PLX 4720 at various concentrations. Results The cell lines CRMM-1 and CM2005.1 showed the B-Raf V600E mutation, whereas CRMM-2 expressed a B-Raf wild type. CM2005.1 was highly sensitive to PLX 4720, showing a complete cytotoxic effect for >1 µM, as well as a significant concentration-dependent reduction of the proliferation rate and viability rate. Even though CRMM-1 also carries the B-Raf V600E mutation, it did not react as sensitive to PLX 4720 inhibition as CM2005.1, but showed a significant concentration-dependent reduction regarding proliferation and viability. PLX 4720 had only slight impact on CRMM-2 in high concentrations (10 µM) regarding cytotoxicity, proliferation and viability. Fluorescence-activated cell sorting analysis revealed that PLX 4720 acted predominantly antiproliferative and not via an induction of apoptosis. The phosphorylation rate of ERK was significantly reduced in CRMM-1 and CM2005.1, while it remained unchanged in CRMM-2. The phosphorylation rate of Akt was significantly elevated in CRMM-2. Conclusions Proliferation inhibition of conjunctival melanoma cells by PLX 4720 depends on their B-Raf genotype. Therefore, therapeutic application of B-Raf inhibitors should take into account the specific B-Raf genotype.

Anoctamin2 (TMEM16B) forms the Ca(2+)-activated Cl(-) channel in the retinal pigment epithelium.

ABSTRACT Chloride channels (Cl channels) play an essential role for the retinal pigment epithelium (RPE). They provide a plasma membrane conductance for Cl− important for transepithelial transport and volume regulation. Ca2+‐dependent chloride channels (CaCC) in the RPE were found to adapt Cl− transport to specific needs by increasing intracellular free Ca2+. Although a variety of Cl channels have been identified in the RPE, the molecular identity of the CaCC remains controversial. Sagittal sections of mouse retina were stained against anoctamin2 (Ano2) and analyzed by confocal microscopy. Membrane currents from ARPE‐19 cells and primary murine RPE cells were recorded in the whole‐cell configuration of the patch‐clamp technique. Expression of Ano2 was assessed via immunocytochemistry, PCR and western‐blot and down‐regulated via siRNA approaches. In the mouse retina, Ano2 was found in the basolateral membrane of the RPE. In primary mouse RPE cells, Ano2 was localized predominantly in the cell membrane. Ano2 mRNA and protein were also detected in rat and primate RPE as well as ARPE‐19 cells. Whole‐cell currents were elicited by increasing intracellular free Ca2+ via ATP application. These currents were identified as Cl− currents by their reversal potential and blocker sensitivity. Knock‐down of Ano2 by siRNA decreased both the Ca2+ dependent chloride conductance and protein expression of Ano2. The biophysical and pharmacological properties of CaCC in ARPE‐19 and primary mouse RPE cells resemble those described in previous publications using RPE cells from different species. The siRNA knock‐down suggests that Ano2 contributes to Ca2+‐dependent chloride conductance in the RPE. Graphical abstract Figure. No Caption available. HighlightsAno2 is expressed in the basolateral membrane of the RPE.ATP application elicits Ca2+‐dependent Cl− conductance in RPE cells that is reduced by siAno2.Ano2 contributes to Ca2+‐dependent Cl− conductance in both ARPE‐19 and primary mouse RPE cells.

Rab27a GTPase modulates L-type Ca2+ channel function via interaction with the II-III linker of CaV1.3 subunit.

In a variety of cells, secretory processes require the activation of both Rab27a and L-type channels of the Ca(V)1.3 subtype. In the retinal pigment epithelium (RPE), Rab27a and Ca(V)1.3 channels regulate growth-factor secretion towards its basolateral side. Analysis of murine retina sections revealed a co-localization of both Rab27a and Ca(V)1.3 at the basolateral membrane of the RPE. Heterologously expressed Ca(V)1.3/β3/α2δ1 channels showed negatively shifted voltage-dependence and decreased current density of about 70% when co-expressed with Rab27a. However, co-localization analysis using α(5)β(1) integrin as a membrane marker revealed that Rab27a co-expression reduced the surface expression of Ca(V)1.3 only about 10%. Physical binding of heterologously expressed Rab27a with Ca(V)1.3 channels was shown by co-localization in immunocytochemistry as well as co-immunoprecipitation which was abolished after deletion of a MyRIP-homologous amino acid sequence at the II-III linker of the Ca(V)1.3 subunit. Rab27a over-expression in ARPE-19 cells positively shifted the voltage dependence, decreased current density of endogenous Ca(V)1.3 channels and reduced VEGF-A secretion. We show the first evidence of a direct functional modulation of an ion channel by Rab27a suggesting a new mechanism of Rab and ion channel interaction in the control of VEGF-A secretion in the RPE.

Identification of PDZ Domain Containing Proteins Interacting with 1.2 and PMCA4b

PDZ (PSD-95/Disc large/Zonula occludens-1) protein interaction domains bind to cytoplasmic protein C-termini of transmembrane proteins. In order to identify new interaction partners of the voltage-gated L-type Ca2

Lack of netrin-4 modulates pathologic neovascularization in the eye

Netrins are a family of matrix-binding proteins that function as guidance signals. Netrin-4 displays pathologic roles in tumorigenesis and neovascularization. To answer the question whether netrin-4 acts either pro- or anti-angiogenic, angiogenesis in the retina was assessed in Ntn-4−/− mice with oxygen-induced retinopathy (OIR) and laser-induced choroidal neovascularization (CNV), mimicking hypoxia-mediated neovascularization and inflammatory mediated angiogenesis. The basement membrane protein netrin-4 was found to be localised to mature retinal blood vessels. Netrin-4, but not netrin-1 mRNA expression, increased in response to relative hypoxia and recovered to normal levels at the end of blood vessel formation. No changes in the retina were found in normoxic Ntn-4−/− mice. In OIR, Ntn-4−/− mice initially displayed larger avascular areas which recovered faster to revascularization. Ganzfeld electroretinography showed faster recovery of retinal function in Ntn-4−/− mice. Expression of netrin receptors, Unc5H2 (Unc-5 homolog B, C. elegans) and DCC (deleted in colorectal carcinoma), was found in Müller cells and astrocytes. Laser-induced neovascularization in Nnt-4−/− mice did not differ to that in the controls. Our results indicate a role for netrin-4 as an angiogenesis modulating factor in O2-dependent vascular homeostasis while being less important during normal retinal developmental angiogenesis or during inflammatory neovascularization.

Anaphylatoxins Activate Ca2+, Akt/PI3-Kinase, and FOXO1/FoxP3 in the Retinal Pigment Epithelium

Purpose The retinal pigment epithelium (RPE) is a main target for complement activation in age-related macular degeneration (AMD). The anaphylatoxins C3a and C5a have been thought to mostly play a role as chemoattractants for macrophages and immune cells; here, we explore whether they trigger RPE alterations. Specifically, we investigated the RPE as a potential immunoregulatory gate, allowing for active changes in the RPE microenvironment in response to complement. Design In vitro and in vivo analysis of signaling pathways. Methods Individual activities of and interaction between the two anaphylatoxin receptors were tested in cultured RPE cells by fluorescence microscopy, western blot, and immunohistochemistry. Main outcome measures Intracellular free calcium, protein phosphorylation, immunostaining of tissues/cells, and multiplex secretion assay. Results Similar to immune cells, anaphylatoxin exposure resulted in increases in free cytosolic Ca2+, PI3-kinase/Akt activation, FoxP3 and FOXO1 phosphorylation, and cytokine/chemokine secretion. Differential responses were elicited depending on whether C3a and C5a were co-administered or applied consecutively, and response amplitudes in co-administration experiments ranged from additive to driven by C5a (C3a + C5a = C5a) or being smaller than those elicited by C3a alone (C3a + C5a < C3a). Conclusion We suggest that this combination of integrative signaling between C3aR and C5aR helps the RPE to precisely adopt its immune regulatory function. These data further contribute to our understanding of AMD pathophysiology.