Nam C. Kim

Dereplication of Saccharide and Polyol Constituents of Candidate Sweet‐tasting Plants: Isolation of the Sesquiterpene Glycoside Mukurozioside IIb as a Sweet Principle of Sapindus rarak

In the search for new potently sweet compounds from plants, the rapid identification and quantification of free sugars and polyols in a crude plant extract is important for dereplication purposes, wherein compounds of known structure or biological activity are removed from further consideration. Accordingly, plants found to have high levels of free sugars and polyols are regarded as lower priority leads when screening for novel natural sweeteners. In the present study, gas chromatography–mass spectrometry was used to examine the sugar/polyol content of six sweet-tasting species, comprised of the pericarp of Dialium indum L. (Leguminosae), the stem of Drypetes floribunda Hutchinson (Euphorbiaceae), the fruit of Hymenaea oblongifolia Huber var. palustris (Ducke) Lee and Langenheim (Leguminosae), the rhizomes of Imperata cylindrica (L.) Beauvois (Gramineae), the fruit of Manilkara zapota (L.) van Royen (Sapotaceae), and the pericarp of Sapindus rarak DC. (Sapindaceae). The total yields of sugars/polyols in these plant parts were 1.9, 6.1, 7.8, 4.5, 10.8 and 2.9% w/w, respectively. Several uncommon polyols were identified, including bornesitol in D. floribunda and quebrachitol in S. rarak. It is likely that the sweet taste of the plants containing more than 5% of sugars/polyols is imparted as a result of the high free sugar and/or polyol content. Owing to its low level of free sugars, S. rarak pericarp was chosen for further study, and the known sesquiterpene glycoside mukurozioside IIb (1) was isolated in high yield (6.3% w/w) as a sweet-tasting constituent. Preliminary evaluations, comprised of mouse acute toxicity and bacterial mutagenesis determinations, indicated the safety of 1. The compound was subsequently rated by a human taste panel as having about the same sweetness potency as sucrose.

Co Loa: an investigation of Vietnam's ancient capital

History, legend and memory have long pointed to Co Loa, an earthwork enclosure outside Hanoi, as the seat of an indigenous power that gave identity to the people of the Bac Bo region, north Vietnam. Survey, excavation and a set of radiocarbon dates now put this site on the historical map. The main rampart of the middle circuit was built in the later centuries BC, before the coming of Han Imperial China. Nor was this rampart the first defence. The authors show the potential of archaeology for revealing the creation and development of a polity among the prosperous people of the Dongson culture.

SOCIAL VIOLENCE AND WAR

Social violence and warfare have been forms of human interaction and behavior throughout recorded history, as well as within the deeper recesses of our ancient past. Researchers have combined evidence from ethnographic studies, historical accounts, and archaeological remains to document and describe manifestations of social violence in a range of temporal and geographical settings. While some research studies demonstrate universal patterns of violence and warfare, others show a diversity of cultural variations pertaining to warfare tactics and equipment, motivations for violence, and warrior prestige. Within archaeology, it is important to note distinctions between homicide and warfare, and to recognize the various lines of evidence that can aid in the reconstruction of past manifestations of social violence.

Trade and State Formation in Ancient East African Coast and Southern Zambezia

Why is social inequality a feature of so many societies? Every generation of archaeologists has sought to understand the transformation from egalitarian bands to today’s world of ‘savage inequalities.’ In this chapter, we draw from recent archaeological research in Eastern and Southern Africa to explain the emergence of socially and politically hierarchical chiefdoms, polities, and states. We identify three main sources of social power: trade, investment in extractive technologies , and elite monopolization of wealth-creating resources. Along the East African Coast, we find that autonomous city-states developed here on local, regional, and trans-continental scales because of Indian Ocean trade. In spite of the wealth the Swahili elites amassed, their city-states remained independent. In Southern Africa, the Southern Zambezian Culture developed similar political formations, but in this highland fertile plain some polities were able to extend their political control over larger geographical areas. Like the Swahili , the Zimbabwe elites were wealthy through trade, taking tribute from foot caravans of gold and ivory bound for the southern Swahili Coast. In the case of Zimbabwe, militarism was a second strategy to consolidate power over the geography of these trade conduits. Studying the evolution of social complexity among the Swahili city-states and the Zimbabwe Plateau demonstrates that trade and militarism are sources of political power for African elites, as they were in other parts of the ancient world. We discuss the impact of these findings in understanding today’s dilemmas of power and inequality.

Coercive Power and State Formation in Northern Vietnam

Archaeological researchers have long contemplated the origins of ancient states, and ongoing research has produced numerous theoretical explanations accounting for archaic state formation. Although the array of cases from varied geographic and temporal settings reflects localized, historical particularities and cultural variability, many researchers have noted general patterning and commonalities in contributing factors for political centralization. Garnering much scholarly attention is the phenomenon of warfare, along with attendant cultural practices related to coercion. A central question has centered on the relationship between coercive power and the political consolidation of persistent authority inherent to states. Using a case study from prehistoric northern Vietnam, this chapter explores the relationship between sociopolitical change and leadership strategies related to competition, militarism, and ideological influence. The case elucidates how coercive power was a vital and pivotal component of a sociopolitically transformative process, one which resulted in the establishment of permanent and institutionalized forms of political authority in Vietnam’s Red River delta over two thousand years ago. Specifically, this chapter deals with archaeological and textual data related to the Co Loa settlement, located in the Red River delta near present-day Hanoi. According to a mixture of folklore and textual accounts, the heavily fortified city was purportedly founded by the semi-legendary kingdom of Au Lac during the third century BC.

Angels, Illusions, Hydras, and Chimeras: Violence and Humanity

Anthropology has long been interested in violence and human nature. Drawing on the research of two recent volumes, this review article considers current scholarship on the subject. At its heart, this topic deals squarely with a question that has been posed for millennia. Are forms of violence attributable to the human condition, or are they the products of cultural development, behaviors that can be controlled, mitigated, and unlearned? The arguments presented in these two volumes have implications not only for how we view humanitys past and present, but also for how we anticipate manifestations of violence in our future.

Population is the main driver of war group size and conflict casualties

Significance Recent views on violence emphasize the decline in proportions of war groups and casualties to populations over time and conclude that past small-scale societies were more violent than contemporary states. In this paper, we argue that these trends are better explained through scaling relationships between population and war group size and between war group size and conflict casualties. We test these relationships and develop measures of conflict investment and lethality that are applicable to societies across space and time. When scaling is accounted for, we find no difference in conflict investment or lethality between small-scale and state societies. Given the lack of population data for past societies, we caution against using archaeological cases of episodic conflicts to measure past violence. The proportions of individuals involved in intergroup coalitional conflict, measured by war group size (W), conflict casualties (C), and overall group conflict deaths (G), have declined with respect to growing populations, implying that states are less violent than small-scale societies. We argue that these trends are better explained by scaling laws shared by both past and contemporary societies regardless of social organization, where group population (P) directly determines W and indirectly determines C and G. W is shown to be a power law function of P with scaling exponent X [demographic conflict investment (DCI)]. C is shown to be a power law function of W with scaling exponent Y [conflict lethality (CL)]. G is shown to be a power law function of P with scaling exponent Z [group conflict mortality (GCM)]. Results show that, while W/P and G/P decrease as expected with increasing P, C/W increases with growing W. Small-scale societies show higher but more variance in DCI and CL than contemporary states. We find no significant differences in DCI or CL between small-scale societies and contemporary states undergoing drafts or conflict, after accounting for variance and scale. We calculate relative measures of DCI and CL applicable to all societies that can be tracked over time for one or multiple actors. In light of the recent global emergence of populist, nationalist, and sectarian violence, our comparison-focused approach to DCI and CL will enable better models and analysis of the landscapes of violence in the 21st century.

The Archaeology of Vietnam

There is archaeological evidence of human occupation in many areas of present-day Vietnam dating from the Pleistocene, with continuous occupation into the modern era. Though an appreciation of the ancient past has long existed for the Vietnamese, the professional pursuits of archaeology began during the French colonial period in the late nineteenth century. Archaeological research has undergone various phases throughout the past century, periodically interrupted by war. As with many countries, especially in Asia, the history and practice of archaeology has undergone significant transformation since the introduction of the discipline, and to some extent, changes have mirrored the political fluctuations of the past century. Accordingly, there has been an important connection between the deeper past and current notions of Vietnamese identity, civilization, and nationhood. In recent decades, history and archaeology have been an important part of both scholarly research and national agendas.

Alice Yao. The ancient highlands of southwest China: from the Bronze Age to the Han Empire. 2016. xi+270 pages, numerous bw 978-0-19-936734-4 hardback £34.99.

the methods employed during excavation. Chapter 11 offers an integrated discussion of Bronze Age metal production and use within the Middle Volga region. Detailed microprobe and metallographic analyses were performed on 95 objects and the full primary multi-element data are provided. Chapters 12 and 13 detail the results of pollen, macrobotanical and phytolith studies from excavations at the Krasnosamarskoe settlement and offer an excellent framework for understanding plant use and seasonal activities. Significantly, no evidence for the use of cultivated plant foods relating to Late Bronze occupation was encountered. Chapters 14–16 provide detailed discussions of faunal data collected through excavations by the SVP. The first of these chapters, in particular, offers an important study of age at death and the season of death, with an interesting examination of rituals linked to the winter sacrifice of dogs and wolves. Chapter 15 plays host to both primary and secondary archaeozoological data relating to the analysis of 22 445 bone specimens recovered from the Krasnosamarskoe settlement. Chapter 16 expands on these data to offer a thorough contextual discussion of fauna and patterns related to butchery and other taphonomic processes. Chapter 17 summarises the results of excavations at the Bronze Age kurgan cemetery at Krasnosamarksoe IV; and Chapter 18 covers the survey and excavation results of five ephemeral Late Bronze Age campsites that were identified through the use of shovel-probe methods.

Cultural Landscapes of War and Political Regeneration

This article examines the production, uses, and reuses of cultural landscapes within contexts of warfare and political change. Ancient concerns over defense and security have led societies to construct fortification features involving extensive modifications to landscapes in many parts of the world. Social memories are often tied to these militarized landscapes, with embedded meanings and values that persist and morph through time. Due to the potential commemorative power offered by militarized landscapes, leadership strategies related to political regeneration can make use of these built environments. Consequently, the significance of these locales is not limited to military functions, as they can be appropriated by later societies for political agendas. The Co Loa site of modern-day Vietnam’s Red River delta, for instance, illustrates such a locality where warfare and politics intersect. Still standing largely intact today, the site’s monumental system of fortification features dominates the local landscape, reflecting broad alterations of the surrounding terrain. Although the system was originally put into place during the Iron Age, later societies have capitalized on the site’s physical and ideological properties for various military and sociopolitical agendas.