Nancy L. Kocovski

State and trait anxiety revisited

State and trait anxiety theory and assessment are reviewed. The person (trait anxiety) and the situation are important in determining levels of state anxiety. The facet of trait anxiety and the stressful situation must be congruent in order to evoke increases in state anxiety. The multidimensional interaction model is reviewed and empirical research is presented. A discussion of anxiety viewed in a dimensional versus a categorical conceptualization is presented. Misconceptions regarding the multidimensionality of trait anxiety are discussed. Finally, it is concluded that anxiety should be viewed as a dimensional construct and that the multidimensionality of state and trait anxiety should be considered in both theory and assessment.

Coping, efficacy, and perceived control in acute vs chronic illnesses

Abstract This study investigated differences in illness-specific coping strategies, self-efficacy, and perceived control over illnesses in adults (18–72 years) reporting acute ( n =137; 41 males, 96 females) and chronic ( n =137; 41 males, 96 females) health problems. Analyses showed that individuals with acute illnesses scored higher on general self-efficacy than individuals with chronic illnesses. No differences between illness groups were observed in perceived control, although severity of illness ratings were found to be negatively related to perceived control. People with chronic illnesses were more likely to use a combination of emotional preoccupation, instrumental and distraction coping strategies, whereas people with acute illnesses used palliative coping strategies to a greater extent. Self-efficacy was found to be negatively related to emotional preoccupation coping, regardless of illness category (i.e., acute vs chronic). Results are discussed in terms of the importance of each of the variables for the two categories of illnesses.

Predictors of Post‐Event Rumination Related to Social Anxiety

Post‐event processing is the cognitive rumination that follows social events in cognitive models of social anxiety. The aim of this study was to examine factors that may predict the extent to which individuals engage in post‐event processing. Anxious rumination, social anxiety, anxiety sensitivity and post‐event processing related to a recent anxiety‐provoking social event were assessed in a college student sample (n = 439). Social anxiety and anxious rumination, but not anxiety sensitivity, significantly predicted the extent to which the participants engaged in post‐event processing related to an anxiety‐provoking social event. Factors that appear to impact on the post‐event period include the nature of the social situation and the ethnicity of the participant. It appears that both general rumination over anxious symptoms, and specific rumination related to social events are relevant for cognitive models of social anxiety.

Social anxiety, self-regulation, and fear of negative evaluation

Social anxiety was investigated in a self‐regulation framework in a sample of 174 undergraduates (124 females; 50 males). As expected, individuals higher in social anxiety were lower on the expectancy to achieve goals, lower on self‐esteem and lower on the frequency on self‐reinforcement. Multiple regression analyses revealed that expectancy to achieve goals, fear of negative evaluation, and public self‐consciousness accounted for 33 per cent of the variance in social anxiety. Fear of negative evaluation was found to mediate between (i) self‐esteem and social anxiety (as hypothesized) and (ii) self‐reinforcement and social anxiety (investigated in an exploratory nature). Copyright

Rumination and distraction periods immediately following a speech task: effect on postevent processing in social anxiety.

The purpose of this study was to investigate social anxiety and the effect of rumination and distraction periods immediately following a speech task on subsequent postevent processing. A secondary aim was to examine the content of postevent rumination. Participants (N = 114 students) completed measures of social anxiety and depression, delivered a 3-minute speech, and were randomly assigned to complete (1) a rumination form about the speech (guided negative rumination condition) or (2) an anagram form (distraction condition). One week later participants completed measures of postevent processing related to the speech task. It was hypothesized that social anxiety would interact with condition in predicting levels of postevent processing. This hypothesis was supported in the prediction of positive thoughts such that at high levels of social anxiety the distraction condition led to more positive thoughts compared with the guided negative rumination condition, whereas at low levels of social anxiety conditions were similar with respect to positive thoughts. Irrespective of condition, both social anxiety and depression predicted greater postevent rumination and negative thoughts 1 week later. With respect to the content of postevent rumination, socially anxious individuals reported being more concerned about some aspects of the presentation (e.g. poor posture), whereas other concerns were equally noted regardless of social anxiety level (e.g. poor content). The present results highlight the potential clinical utility of distracting from social anxiety to allow for greater access to positive thoughts postevent.

Self-Regulation and Distress in Clinical Psychology

Publisher Summary Self-regulation of human behavior involves setting goals, and monitoring and evaluating behavior and thoughts. An attempt is made to reduce discrepancies between standards and behavior. If goals have been achieved, a person may engage in reinforcing thoughts and/or activities (self-reinforcement). Problems in the self-regulation of behavior or thoughts may result in distress. It may be that goals are set at levels that are too high or at levels that an individual does not believe he or she is capable of achieving. An individual may engage in perseverative self-monitoring and self-evaluation or, alternatively, may disengage from the monitoring of behavior. Contrary to the addictive behavior research, socially anxious individuals and depressed individuals are found to engage in perseverative self-monitoring and self-appraisal. Socially anxious and depressed persons also may set goals that they do not believe they are capable of achieving.

Controllability in cognitive and interpersonal tasks: is control good for you?☆

Abstract Is control of a situation beneficial to the person involved? The present study, which tested the “goodness of fit” hypothesis, examined situation-specific coping (SSC) strategies and distress as a function of situational control over two stressful situations: (1) a cognitive task (anagrams), and (2) an interpersonal task, which involved examining a picture of two people interacting, and telling a story about it. Coping strategies used to confront the two situations, and psychological distress, were measured. For the cognitive task only, performance (number of anagrams solved) was assessed. Thus, the four independent variables were: objective or experimental control (high vs low); perceived control (high vs low); gender (college men vs college women); and task (cognitive vs interpersonal). The dependent variables were: coping strategy (task vs emotion); distress (state anxiety); and performance (anagrams solved). The results were similar to previous studies with anagram tasks [Endler, N. S., Speer, R. L., Johnson, J. M., & Flett, G. L. (in press a). Controllability, coping, efficacy, and distress. European Journal of Psychology; Endler, N. S., Speer, R. L., Johnson, J. M., & Flett, G. L. (in press b). Self-efficacy and control in relation to anxiety and cognitive performance. Current Psychology: Developmental • Learning • Personality • Social], and these results were extended from the anagram task to the interpersonal task. For both tasks, high perceived control participants reported less state anxiety than low perceived control participants; they were also lower on emotion-oriented SSC, and for the interpersonal task only, they scored higher on task-oriented SSC. Emotion-oriented SSC, higher in the low perceived control group, was significantly related to higher state anxiety for both tasks. Participants in the high perceived control condition solved more anagrams than participants in the low perceived control condition. In sum, control is generally good for a person, in terms of better performance, lower emotion-oriented SSC, and lower state anxiety.

Mindfulness and Psychopathology: Problem Formulation

Mindfulness-based interventions are currently being used with a variety of populations to treat a wide range of physical and psychological disorders. For example, Mindfulness-Based Stress Reduction (MBSR; Kabat-Zinn, 1990) has been used to treat chronic pain and anxiety, among other conditions. Mindfulness-Based Cognitive Therapy (MBCT; Segal, Williams, & Teasdale, 2002) has been used for the prevention of relapse in depression. Acceptance and Commitment Therapy (ACT; Hayes, Strosahl, & Wilson, 1999) includes elements of mindfulness and has been used with a wide variety of patients. Finally, Dialectical Behavior Therapy (DBT; Linehan, 1993) incorporates mindfulness as a core skill in the treatment of borderline personality disorder. With the growing number of mindfulness-based interventions, and the growing evidence supporting the use of some of these interventions, clinicians are understandably interested in continuing to apply mindfulness to a wide variety of concerns. However, the danger of over-applying mindfulness as a treatment for psychopathology exists. Additionally, the application of a generic mindfulness program to a wide variety of complaints may not be as efficacious as tailoring the mindfulness intervention to a specific problem. In addition to tailoring a mindfulness intervention to a specific complaint, an integrative approach, one in which evidence-based interventions are retained and mindfulness is incorporated in a theoretically consistent manner, may lead to the most favorable outcomes. The primary goal of this chapter is to highlight the importance of taking a problem formulation approach in the development and use of mindfulness interventions. Related to this, a secondary aim of this chapter is to review current theory and research on mechanisms of change of mindfulness interventions in the reduction of psychological distress and also to encourage further research in this area. A clear understanding of how mindfulness interventions lead to positive outcomes is essential for therapists, as it will enhance problem formulation.

Separation, self‐disclosure, and social evaluation anxiety as facets of trait social anxiety

In the current article, we propose an expansion of the trait anxiety concept to include interpersonal or social facets of trait anxiety involving separation from significant others and disclosing aspects of the self to others, as a supplement to the existing focus on social evaluation anxiety. Participants in three studies completed a modified version of the Endler Multidimensional Anxiety Scales that included a measure of trait social evaluation anxiety, as well as new measures of trait separation anxiety and trait self‐disclosure anxiety (i.e., three measures of trait social anxiety). Results showed that the social evaluation, separation, and self‐disclosure trait anxiety scales have strong psychometric properties and that they represent distinct but related components of trait anxiety. With respect to validity, the facets of trait social anxiety were predictive of related variables including self‐concealment, anxiety sensitivity, and trait worry. The theoretical and practical implications of a multifaceted approach to trait social anxiety are discussed in terms of an expanded multidimensional interaction model of anxiety. Copyright

Coping and psychological distress for men with substance use disorders

Coping with stress is a major focus for chemically dependent persons in relapse prevention programs. The relationships among coping and psychological distress were investigated in 71 men with substance use disorders, at both pre—and post-treatment. It was predicted that low task-oriented coping, high emotion-oriented coping, and high avoidance-oriented coping would predict psychological distress (e.g., anxiety and depression). It was also expected that use of task-oriented coping would increase following treatment and that use of emotion-oriented coping and avoidance-oriented coping, and reported levels of psychological distress would all decrease following treatment. Participants completed the Coping Inventory for Stressful Situations and the General Health Questionnaire, took part in an intensive treatment program (e.g., relaxation, drug education, stress management) and completed these questionnaires again following treatment. Results indicated that high emotion-oriented coping predicted hypochondriasis, anxiety and depression. Task-oriented and avoidance-oriented coping did not predict psychological distress, although task-oriented coping was negatively related to hypochondriasis, anxiety and depression. The results regarding change in coping styles and levels of psychological distress were as hypothesized, except that avoidance-oriented coping did not significantly change following treatment. Theoretical and practical implications of the research are discussed.Coping with stress is a major focus for chemically dependent persons in relapse prevention programs. The relationships among coping and psychological distress were investigated in 71 men with substance use disorders, at both pre—and post-treatment. It was predicted that low task-oriented coping, high emotion-oriented coping, and high avoidance-oriented coping would predict psychological distress (e.g., anxiety and depression). It was also expected that use of task-oriented coping would increase following treatment and that use of emotion-oriented coping and avoidance-oriented coping, and reported levels of psychological distress would all decrease following treatment. Participants completed the Coping Inventory for Stressful Situations and the General Health Questionnaire, took part in an intensive treatment program (e.g., relaxation, drug education, stress management) and completed these questionnaires again following treatment. Results indicated that high emotion-oriented coping predicted hypochondriasis, anxiety and depression. Task-oriented and avoidance-oriented coping did not predict psychological distress, although task-oriented coping was negatively related to hypochondriasis, anxiety and depression. The results regarding change in coping styles and levels of psychological distress were as hypothesized, except that avoidance-oriented coping did not significantly change following treatment. Theoretical and practical implications of the research are discussed.