Norman S. Endler

Assessment of Multidimensional Coping: Task, Emotion, and Avoidance Strategies.

Four studies on the psychometric properties of the Coping Inventory for Stressful Situations (CISS) are reported. Study 1 examined the factor structure of the CISS in samples of 832 college students and 483 adults. Strong support was found for the multidimensionality of the CISS, suggesting that the scale independently assesses 3 basic dimensions: task-, emotion-, and avoidance-oriented coping. Study 2 further investigated the construct validity of the CISS by comparing it with 2 measures of basic coping styles. Study 3 also examined the construct validity of the CISS by comparing it with various measures of psychopathology. Study 4 investigated the concurrent validity of the CISS by studying the relationship between crying style (assessed by the CISS) and situation-specific coping responses used in 2 different stressful situations

Coping with coping assessment : a critical review

The recent literature on self‐report measures of coping reactions and strategies is reviewed and critically evaluated. Most of the coping research has focused on assessing several basic coping behaviours or reactions. These include dimensions such as task‐oriented coping, emotion‐oriented coping, and avoidance‐oriented coping. In general, most of the coping scales that have been developed have a variety of psychometric inadequacies. This state of affairs has created at least two major problems in the coping literature: (1) The proliferation of problematic coping scales, sometimes measuring different constructs, makes it difficult to generalize from one population and/or one health problem to another. (2) Since psychometrically sound instruments are a precondition for studying the relationships among coping, personality, and health, scales with psychometric problems preclude obtaining valid and generalizable information about coping behaviour. Methodological problems in the area have seriously restricted the development of a systematic body of theory and empirical knowledge about coping.

Factorial validity of the 20‐item Toronto Alexithymia Scale

The 20‐item Toronto Alexithymia Scale (TAS‐20) was developed in previous research to measure a general dimension of alexithymia with three inter correlated factors. These three factors reflect distinct facets of the alexithymia construct: (1) difficulty identifying feelings and distinguishing them from the bodily sensations of emotion, (2) difficulty describing feelings to others, and (3) an externally orientated style of thinking. This study tested the three‐factor model for the TAS‐20, using confirmatory factor analysis, in separate samples of young adults from Germany, Canada, and the United States. The previously established three‐factor model was found to be replicable in all three samples. In addition, the full TAS‐20 and its three factors demonstrated adequate internal reliability in all three samples. Although evaluation of the convergent, discriminant, and criterion validity of the TAS‐20 is required in diverse cultural groups, the present results provide evidence for the factorial validity and internal reliability of the TAS‐20.

State and trait anxiety revisited

State and trait anxiety theory and assessment are reviewed. The person (trait anxiety) and the situation are important in determining levels of state anxiety. The facet of trait anxiety and the stressful situation must be congruent in order to evoke increases in state anxiety. The multidimensional interaction model is reviewed and empirical research is presented. A discussion of anxiety viewed in a dimensional versus a categorical conceptualization is presented. Misconceptions regarding the multidimensionality of trait anxiety are discussed. Finally, it is concluded that anxiety should be viewed as a dimensional construct and that the multidimensionality of state and trait anxiety should be considered in both theory and assessment.

Coping with health problems: Developing a reliable and valid multidimensional measure.

Current conceptions relating psychological variables to health recognize the key role of coping processes as mediating variables between stress and illness, yet few reliable and valid instruments exist for the assessment of coping with physical health problems. A self-report instrument, the Coping With Health Injuries and Problems Scale (CHIP) was developed identifying 4 basic coping dimensions for responding to health problems: distraction, palliative, instrumental, and emotional preoccupation coping. The CHIPs factor structure, established with a large derivation sample of adults, is cross-validated in a heterogenous group of general medical patients and a homogeneous group of patients being treated for lower back pain. Preliminary construct validity data are presented by comparing the coping behaviors of patients with chronic and acute illnesses and by comparing CHIP scores with basic coping styles.

Coping, life stress, and psychological and somatic distress.

Theory and research have focused on the relationships among coping processes, stressful life events, and psychological and physical distress. This study was designed to examine the relationship of stressful life events and three styles of coping—emotion oriented, task oriented, and avoidance oriented—to physical and psychological distress. Questionnaires measuring coping styles, recent life stressors, and both physical symptoms and psychological symptoms were completed by 205 undergraduates (101 males and 104 females). It was hypothesized that task‐oriented coping would negatively predict distress and that emotion‐oriented coping would positively predict distress. The relationships of two types of avoidance‐oriented coping (distraction and social diversion) to distress were also examined. Multiple regression analyses revealed that task‐oriented coping was negatively related to distress, but only for males. Emotion‐oriented coping was significantly positively predictive of distress for both males and females. The two subcomponents of avoidance‐oriented coping—distraction and social diversion—were differentially related to measures of distress. Life event stress positively predicted distress, both as an independent contributor of variance and in interaction with several coping styles.

Substance abuse and panic-related anxiety: A critical review

The relationship between substance abuse and panic-related anxiety can be divided into two broad areas: the incidence of anxiety disorders in substance abuse patients and the incidence of substance abuse in patients with panic-related anxiety disorders. Studies indicate that approx. 10-40% of alcoholics have a panic-related anxiety disorder, and about 10-20% of anxiety disorder patients abuse alcohol or other drugs. The majority of patients with both an anxiety and alcohol disorder report that anxiety problems preceded alcohol problems. In some cases substance abuse (e.g. cocaine) triggers the onset of panic attacks. Most patients believe that self-medication is efficacious despite the fact that they appear to have a more serious clinical condition (e.g. higher rates of depression). Directions for future research are outlined, including the proposal for a study to examine the effects of an anxiety intervention procedure for anxious alcoholics to reduce relapse rates.

State and trait anxiety, depression and coping styles

Abstract Considerable interest has recently been directed at the relationship between coping styles and depression. However, a systematic understanding of this relationship has been impeded because of the use of coping measures with problematic psychometric qualities. The present study examined the relationship between depressive symptoms and coping styles in a college sample, using the recently developed Multidimensional Coping Inventory (MCI) to assess coping styles. The relationships between depression and both state and trait anxiety were also examined, since there is accumulating evidence that the constructs of depression and anxiety are difficult to distinguish in a college population. The study found gender differences in coping behaviour, with females reporting more emotion-oriented and avoidance-oriented coping behaviours than males. Males and females scoring high on depressive symptoms were found to use more emotion-oriented coping than those scoring low. A strong relationship was found between ...

Multidimensionality of state and trait anxiety: Factor structure of the Endler Multidimensional Anxiety Scales.

The Endler Multidimensional Anxiety Scales (EMAS) are derived from an interactional model of personality that proposes that anxiety is a function of the interaction of person and situation variables. The EMAS distinguish between state and trait anxiety and assume that both are multidimensional constructs. The EMAS were administered to 2,009 students in a neutral situation. Three factor analyses were performed to clarify the empirical relation between state and trait anxiety and the variables within the 2 domains. Results support the distinction between state and trait anxiety. Factor analysis of the state items provided support for the separate dimensions of cognitive and autonomic state anxiety. Factor analysis of the trait items provided support for trait anxiety multidimensionality. Four congruent factors were associated with increases in state anxiety in 4 general situations: Social Evaluation, Physical Danger, Ambiguous, and Daily Routines.

If it changes, it might be unstable: examining the factor structure of the ways of coping questionnaire

The Ways of Coping Questionnaire (WCQ) is the most widely used measure of basic coping responses. In Study 1, 6 different theoretical models corresponding to the various dimensions of coping as assessed by the WCQ were tested for goodness of fit using confirmatory factor analysis. College students (N = 530) completed the WCQ before a midterm exam, and their responses were the basis of the analysis. None of the coping models were good representations of the data. Study 2 aimed to derive a replicable set of coping dimensions using a series of exploratory factor analyses with the data collected in Study 1. A 4-factor model was derived and subsequently tested for its goodness of fit with another sample of 392 college students who were also preparing for a midterm exam