Naoyuki Ishida

Characteristics of Sugar Surfactants in Stabilizing Proteins During Freeze–Thawing and Freeze–Drying

Sugar surfactants with different alkyl chain lengths and sugar head groups were compared for their protein-stabilizing effect during freeze-thawing and freeze-drying. Six enzymes, different in terms of tolerance against inactivation because of freeze-thawing and freeze-drying, were used as model proteins. The enzyme activities that remained after freeze-thawing and freeze-drying in the presence of a sugar surfactant were measured for different types and concentrations of sugar surfactants. Sugar surfactants stabilized all of the tested enzymes both during freeze-thawing and freeze-drying, and a one or two order higher amount of added sugar surfactant was required for achieving protein stabilization during freeze-drying than for the cryoprotection. The comprehensive comparison showed that the C10-C12 esters of sucrose or trehalose were the most effective through the freeze-drying process: the remaining enzyme activities after freeze-thawing and freeze-drying increased at the sugar ester concentrations of 1-10 and 10-100 μM, respectively, and increased to a greater extent than for the other surfactants at higher concentrations. Results also indicate that, when a decent amount of sugar was also added, the protein-stabilizing effect of a small amount of sugar ester through the freeze-drying process could be enhanced.

Surfactant-free solid dispersion of fat-soluble flavour in an amorphous sugar matrix

A solid dispersion technique to homogeneously disperse hydrophobic ingredients in a water-soluble solid without using surfactant was examined as follows: first, freeze-dried amorphous sugar was dissolved in an organic medium that contained a soluble model hydrophobic component. Second, the mixed solution of sugar and the model hydrophobic component was vacuum dried into a solid (solid dispersion). Methanol and six fat-soluble flavours, including cinnamaldehyde, were used as organic media and model hydrophobic components. The retention of flavours in the solid dispersion during drying and storage under vacuum was evaluated. The amorphised disaccharides dissolved in methanol up to 100mg/mL, even temporarily (20s to 10 days) and could be solidified without any evidence of crystallisation and segregation from flavour. The solid dispersion, prepared using α-maltose usually showed 65-95% flavour retention during drying (and storage for cinnamaldehyde), whereas ⩾ 50% of the flavour was lost when the flavour was O/W emulsified with a surfactant and then freeze-dried with sugar.

Improving the physical stability of freeze-dried amorphous sugar matrices by compression at several hundreds MPa.

Amorphous matrices, composed of sugars, are markedly plasticized by moisture uptake, which results in physical instability. Our previous studies, in the compression pressure range ≤443 MPa, indicated that when a matrix is compressed, the amount of sorbed water at given relative humidities (RHs) decreases, whereas the glass transition temperature (T(g)) remains constant. Herein, the effect of higher compression pressures than those used previously was explored to investigate the feasibility of using compression to improve the physical stability of amorphous sugar matrix against water uptake and subsequent collapse. Amorphous sugar samples were prepared by freeze-drying and then compressed at 0-665 MPa, followed by rehumidification at given RHs. The physical stability of the amorphous sugar sample was evaluated by measuring T(g) and crystallization temperature (T(cry)). The amounts of sorbed water, different in the interaction state, were determined using an FTIR technique. It was found that the compression at pressures of ≥443 MPa decreased the amount of sorbed water, which is a major factor in plasticization and crystallization, and thus markedly increased the T(g) and T(cry) relative to that for the uncompressed sample. Hence, the compression at several hundreds MPa appears to be feasible for improving the physical stability of amorphous sugar matrix.

Surfactant-Free Solid Dispersions of Hydrophobic Drugs in an Amorphous Sugar Matrix Dried from an Organic Solvent

The technique for homogeneously dispersing hydrophobic drugs in a water-soluble solid matrix (solid dispersion) is a subject that has been extensively investigated in the pharmaceutical industry. Herein, a novel technique for dispersing a solid, without the need to use a surfactant, is reported. A freeze-dried amorphous sugar sample was dissolved in an organic solvent, which contained a soluble model hydrophobic component. The suspension of the sugar and the model hydrophobic component was vacuum foam dried to give a solid powder. Four types of sugars and methanol were used as representative sugars and the organic medium. Four model drugs (indomethacin, ibuprofen, gliclazide, and nifedipine) were employed. Differential scanning calorimetry analyses indicated that the sugar and model drug (100:1) did not undergo segregation during the drying process. The dissolution of the hydrophobic drugs in water from the solid dispersion was then evaluated, and the results indicated that the Cmax and AUC0-60xa0min of the hydrophobic drug in water were increased when the surfactant-free solid dispersion was used. Palatinose and/or α-maltose were superior to the other tested carbohydrates in increasing Cmax and AUC0-60xa0min for all tested model drugs, and the model drug with a lower water solubility tended to exhibit a greater extent of over-dissolution.

Adsorption of lysozyme on base metal surfaces in the presence of an external electric potential.

The impact of external electric potential on the adsorption of a protein to base metal surfaces was examined. Hen egg white lysozyme (LSZ) and six types of base metal plates (stainless steel SUS316L (St), Ti, Ta, Zr, Cr, or Ni) were used as the protein and adsorption surface, respectively. LSZ was allowed to adsorb on the surface under different conditions (surface potential, pH, electrolyte type and concentration, surface material), which was monitored using an ellipsometer. LSZ adsorption was minimized in the potential range above a certain threshold and, in the surface potential range below the threshold, decreasing the surface potential increased the amount of protein adsorbed. The threshold potential for LSZ adsorption was shifted toward a positive value with increasing pH and was lower for Ta and Zr than for the others. A divalent anion salt (K2SO4) as an electrolyte exhibited the adsorption of LSZ in the positive potential range while a monovalent salt (KCl) did not. A comprehensive consideration of the obtained results suggests that two modes of interactions, namely the electric force by an external electric field and electrostatic interactions with ionized surface hydroxyl groups, act on the LSZ molecules and determine the extent of suppression of LSZ adsorption. All these findings appear to support the view that a base metal surface can be controlled for the affinity to a protein by manipulating the surface electric potential as has been reported on some electrode materials.

Hydrophobic Attraction Measured between Asymmetric Hydrophobic Surfaces

The interaction forces between silica surfaces modified to different degrees of hydrophobicity were measured using colloidal probe atomic force microscopy (AFM). A highly hydrophobic silica particle was prepared with octadecyltrichlorosilane (OTS), and the interaction forces were measured against silica substrates modified to produce surfaces of varying hydrophobicity. The interaction forces between the highly hydrophobic particle and a completely hydrophilic silicon wafer surface fitted well to the DLVO theory, indicating that no additional (non-DLVO) forces act between the surfaces. When the silicon wafer surface was treated to produce a contact angle of water on surface of 40°, an additional attractive force that is longer ranged than the van der Waals force was observed between the surfaces. The range and magnitude of the attractive force increase with the contact angle of water on the substrate. Beyond the effect on the contact angle, the hydrocarbon chain length and the terminal groups of hydrophobic layer on the substrate only have a minor effect on the magnitude of the force, even when the substrate is terminated with polar carboxyl groups, provided the hydrophobicity of the other surface is high.

The use of a proteinaceous “cushion” with a polystyrene‐binding peptide tag to control the orientation and function of a target peptide adsorbed to a hydrophilic polystyrene surface

In immobilizing target biomolecules on a solid surface, it is essential (i) to orient the target moiety in a preferred direction and (ii) to avoid unwanted interactions of the target moiety including with the solid surface. The preferred orientation of the target moiety can be achieved by genetic conjugation of an affinity peptide tag specific to the immobilization surface. Herein, we report on a strategy for reducing the extent of direct interaction between the target moiety and surface in the immobilization of hexahistidine peptide (6His) and green fluorescent protein (GFP) on a hydrophilic polystyrene (PS) surface: Ribonuclease HII from Thermococcus kodakaraensis (cHII) was genetically inserted as a “cushion” between the PS‐affinity peptide tag and target moiety. The insertion of a cushion protein resulted in a considerably stronger immobilization of target biomolecules compared to conjugation with only a PS affinity peptide tag, resulting in a substantially enhanced accessibility of the detection antibody to the target 6His peptide. The fluorescent intensity of the GFP moiety was decreased by approximately 30% as the result of fusion with cHII and the PS‐affinity peptide tag but was fully retained in the immobilization on the PS surface irrespective of the increased binding force. Furthermore, the fusion of cHII did not impair the stability of the target GFP moiety. Accordingly, the use of a proteinaceous cushion appears to be promising for the immobilization of functional biomolecules on a solid surface.

Stratification of Colloidal Particles on a Surface: Study by a Colloidal Probe Atomic Force Microscopy Combined with a Transform Theory

Colloidal probe atomic force microscopy (CP-AFM) can be used for measuring force curves between the colloidal probe and the substrate in a colloidal suspension. In the experiment, an oscillatory force curve reflecting the layer structure of the colloidal particles on the substrate is usually obtained. However, the force curve is not equivalent to the interfacial structure of the colloidal particles. In this paper, the force curve is transformed into the number density distribution of the colloidal particles as a function of the distance from the substrate surface using our newly developed transform theory. It is found by the transform theory that the interfacial stratification is enhanced by an increase in an absolute value of the surface potential of the colloidal particle, despite a simultaneous increase in a repulsive electrostatic interaction between the substrate and the colloidal particle. To elucidate the mechanism of the stratification, an integral equation theory is employed. It is found that crowding of the colloidal particles in the bulk due to the increase in the absolute value of the surface potential of the colloidal particle leads to pushing out some colloidal particles to the wall. The combined method of CP-AFM and the transform theory (the experimental-theoretical study of the interfacial stratification) is related to colloidal crystallization, glass transition, and aggregation on a surface. Thus, the combined method is important for developments of colloidal nanotechnologies.

Adsorption characteristics of various proteins on a metal surface in the presence of an external electric potential

The effect of the properties of a protein on its adsorption to a metal surface in the presence of external electric potential was investigated. Protein adsorption processes at different surface potentials were measured for fifteen types of proteins using an in-situ ellipsometry. The tested proteins were classified into three groups, based on the amount of protein that was adsorbed as a function of the surface potential: In First group of proteins, an increasing trend for the amount adsorbed with a more positive surface potential was found; The amount adsorbed of α-chymotrypsinogen A and ribonuclease A (Second group) were roughly constant and independent of the applied surface electric potentials; In Third group, the amount adsorbed decreased with increasing surface potential. This protein classification was correlated with the isoelectric points of the proteins (First group: ≤9.3; Second group: 9.3-10; Third group: >10). Increasing the pH positively and negatively shifted the surface potentials, allowing ß-lactoglobulin (First group) and lysozyme (Third) to become adsorbed, respectively. The surface potential range for protein adsorption was also markedly shifted depending on the metal substrate type. These findings were interpreted based on the electrostatic interactions among the protein, surface hydroxyl groups, and the applied external electric field.

Influence of an external electric field on removal of protein fouling on a stainless steel surface by proteolytic enzymes

Enzymatic cleaning is a potentially useful method for removing proteinaceous fouling from solid surfaces under mild conditions. Herein, the influence of an external electric field on the enzymatic cleaning of a metal surface fouled with a protein was investigated. The model fouling protein (BSA; lysozyme) was prepared on a stainless steel (St) surface, and the resulting surface subjected to enzymatic cleaning with an electric potential being applied to the St plate. Trypsin, α-chymotrypsin, and thermolysin were used as model proteases. The amounts of protein remaining on the plate before and during the cleaning process were measured by means of a reflection absorption technique using Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy. In the case for BSA fouling, the cleaning efficiency of the protease tended to increase at more negative applied potentials. Whereas, there was an optimum applied potential for removing the lysozyme fouling. Atomic force microscopy analyses indicated that applying an adequate range of electric potential enhanced the enzymatic removal of protein fouling inside scratches on the St plate surface. These findings suggest the existence of two modes of electrostatic interactions for the external electric field, one with protease molecules and the other with digested fragments of the fouling protein.