Nathan R. Gemmell

Kilometre-range, high resolution depth imaging using 1560 nm wavelength single-photon detection

This paper highlights a significant advance in time-of-flight depth imaging: by using a scanning transceiver which incorporated a free-running, low noise superconducting nanowire single-photon detector, we were able to obtain centimeter resolution depth images of low-signature objects in daylight at stand-off distances of the order of one kilometer at the relatively eye-safe wavelength of 1560 nm. The detector used had an efficiency of 18% at 1 kHz dark count rate, and the overall system jitter was ~100 ps. The depth images were acquired by illuminating the scene with an optical output power level of less than 250 µW average, and using per-pixel dwell times in the millisecond regime.

Singlet oxygen luminescence detection with a fiber-coupled superconducting nanowire single-photon detector

We report on the direct monitoring of singlet oxygen luminescence at 1270 nm wavelength using a fiber coupled superconducting nanowire single-photon detector. These results open the pathway to practical dose monitoring in photodynamic therapy.

Kilometer-range depth imaging at 1550 nm wavelength using an InGaAs/InP single-photon avalanche diode detector

We have used an InGaAs/InP single-photon avalanche diode detector module in conjunction with a time-of-flight depth imager operating at a wavelength of 1550 nm, to acquire centimeter resolution depth images of low signature objects at stand-off distances of up to one kilometer. The scenes of interest were scanned by the transceiver system using pulsed laser illumination with an average optical power of less than 600 µW and per-pixel acquisition times of between 0.5 ms and 20 ms. The fiber-pigtailed InGaAs/InP detector was Peltier-cooled and operated at a temperature of 230 K. This detector was used in electrically gated mode with a single-photon detection efficiency of about 26% at a dark count rate of 16 kilocounts per second. The systems overall instrumental temporal response was 144 ps full width at half maximum. Measurements made in daylight on a number of target types at ranges of 325 m, 910 m, and 4.5 km are presented, along with an analysis of the depth resolution achieved.

A compact fiber-optic probe-based singlet oxygen luminescence detection system

This paper presents a novel compact fiberoptic based singlet oxygen near‐infrared luminescence probe coupled to an InGaAs/InP single photon avalanche diode (SPAD) detector. Patterned time gating of the single‐photon detector is used to limit unwanted dark counts and eliminate the strong photosensitizer luminescence background. Singlet oxygen luminescence detection at 1270 nm is confirmed through spectral filtering and lifetime fitting for Rose Bengal in water, and Photofrin in methanol as model photosensitizers. The overall performance, measured by the signal‐to‐noise ratio, improves by a factor of 50 over a previous system that used a fiberoptic‐coupled superconducting nanowire single‐photon detector. The effect of adding light scattering to the photosensitizer is also examined as a first step towards applications in tissue in vivo. figureWiley-VCH Verlag & Co.KGaA

A Comparison of Singlet Oxygen Explicit Dosimetry (SOED) and Singlet Oxygen Luminescence Dosimetry (SOLD) for Photofrin-Mediated Photodynamic Therapy

Accurate photodynamic therapy (PDT) dosimetry is critical for the use of PDT in the treatment of malignant and nonmalignant localized diseases. A singlet oxygen explicit dosimetry (SOED) model has been developed for in vivo purposes. It involves the measurement of the key components in PDT—light fluence (rate), photosensitizer concentration, and ground-state oxygen concentration ([3O2])—to calculate the amount of reacted singlet oxygen ([1O2]rx), the main cytotoxic component in type II PDT. Experiments were performed in phantoms with the photosensitizer Photofrin and in solution using phosphorescence-based singlet oxygen luminescence dosimetry (SOLD) to validate the SOED model. Oxygen concentration and photosensitizer photobleaching versus time were measured during PDT, along with direct SOLD measurements of singlet oxygen and triplet state lifetime (τΔ and τt), for various photosensitizer concentrations to determine necessary photophysical parameters. SOLD-determined cumulative [1O2]rx was compared to SOED-calculated [1O2]rx for various photosensitizer concentrations to show a clear correlation between the two methods. This illustrates that explicit dosimetry can be used when phosphorescence-based dosimetry is not feasible. Using SOED modeling, we have also shown evidence that SOLD-measured [1O2]rx using a 523 nm pulsed laser can be used to correlate to singlet oxygen generated by a 630 nm laser during a clinical malignant pleural mesothelioma (MPM) PDT protocol by using a conversion formula.

A feasibility study of singlet oxygen explicit dosmietry (SOED) of PDT by intercomparison with a singlet oxygen luminescence dosimetry (SOLD) system.

An explicit dosimetry model has been developed to calculate the apparent reacted 1O2 concentration ([1O2]rx) in an in-vivo model. In the model, a macroscopic quantity, g, is introduced to account for oxygen perfusion to the medium during PDT. In this study, the SOED model is extended for PDT treatment in phantom conditions where vasculature is not present; the oxygen perfusion is achieved through the air-phantom interface instead. The solution of the SOED model is obtained by solving the coupled photochemical rate equations incorporating oxygen perfusion through the air-liquid interface. Experiments were performed for two photosensitizers (PS), Rose Bengal (RB) and Photofrin, in solution, using SOED and SOLD measurements to determine both the instantaneous [1O2] as well as cumulative [1O2]rx concentrations, where [1O2=(1/τ▵)•∫[1O2]dt. The PS concentrations varied between 10 and 100 mM for RB and ~200 mM for Photofrin. The resulting magnitudes of [1O2] were compared between SOED and SOLD.

Depth imaging at kilometer range using time-correlated single-photon counting at wavelengths of 850 nm and 1560 nm

Active depth imaging approaches are being used in a number of emerging applications, for example in environmental sensing, manufacturing and defense. The high sensitivity and picosecond timing resolution of the time-correlated single-photon counting technique can provide distinct advantages in the trade-offs between required illumination power, range, depth resolution and data acquisition durations. These considerations must also address requirements for eye-safety, especially in applications requiring outdoor, kilometer range sensing. We present a scanning time-of-flight imager based on MHz repetition-rate pulsed illumination operating with sub-milliwatt average power. The use of a scanning mechanism permits operation with an individual, high-performance single-photon detector. The system has been used with a number of non-cooperative targets, in different weather conditions and various ambient light conditions. We consider a number of system issues, including the range ambiguity issue and scattering from multiple surfaces. The initial work was performed at wavelengths around 850 nm for convenient use with Si-based single photon avalanche diode detectors, however we will also discuss the performance at a wavelength of 1560 nm, made using superconducting nanowire single photon detectors. The use of the latter wavelength band allows access to a low-loss atmospheric window, as well as greatly reduced solar background contribution and less stringent eye safety considerations. We consider a range of optical design configurations and discuss the performance trade-offs and future directions in more detail.

Kilometer range depth imaging using time-correlated single-photon counting

Active depth imaging approaches have numerous potential applications in a number of disciplines, including environmental sensing, manufacturing and defense. The high sensitivity and picosecond timing resolution of the singlephoton counting technique can provide distinct advantages in the trade-offs between required illumination power, range, depth resolution, and data acquisition durations. These considerations must also address requirements for eye-safety, especially in applications requiring outdoor, kilometer range sensing. We present a scanning time-of-flight imager based on high repetition-rate (>MHz) pulsed illumination and a silicon single-photon detector. In advanced photon-counting experiments, we have employed the system for unambiguous range resolution at several kilometer target distance, multiple-surface resolution based on adaptive algorithms, and a cumulative data acquisition method that facilitates detector characterization and evaluation. We consider a range of optical design configurations and discuss the performance trade-offs in more detail. Much of this work has been performed at wavelengths around 850nm for convenient use with Si-based single photon avalanche diode detectors, however we will also discuss the performance at wavelengths around 1550 nm employing superconducting nanowire single photon detectors. The extension of this depth profiling technique to longer wavelengths will lead to relaxed eye safety requirements, reduced solar background levels and improvements in atmospheric transmission.

Superconducting nanowire materials for mid infrared single photon detection (Conference Presentation)

Superconducting nanowire single photon detectors (SNSPD) offer excellent performance for infrared single photon detection, combining high efficiency, low timing jitter, low dark count rates and high photon counting rates. Promising application areas for SNSPDs include quantum key distribution, space-to-ground communications and single photon remote sensing [1]. SNSPDs are typically made with ultrathin niobium nitride (NbN) films with thickness 4 nm and a superconducting transition temperature above 9 K. NbN offers high performance in the near infrared but their sensitivity drops at wavelengths beyond 2 um. There is growing interest in potential photon counting applications in the mid infrared domain (for example remote sensing of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere [2]). One way to overcome the wavelength limit in NbN SNSPDs is to use films with a lower superconducting energy gap [3]. Here we report on the study of SNSPDs fabricated with thin films of titanium nitride (TiN). We compare TiN films deposited by atomic layer deposition (ALD) and by magnetron sputtering. The TiN films range in thickness from 5 to 60 nm, with superconducting transition temperatures from ~1 K to 3.5 K. We have analyzed the films via transmission electron microscopy and variable angle spectroscopic ellipsometry. We characterize TiN SNSPDs performance from near to mid-infrared at wavelengths (1-4 um) with fast optical parametric oscillator (OPO) source. We compare the performance of TiN SNSPDs to devices based on other lower gap materials: MoSi, NbTiN, WSi. [1] Natarajan et al Superconductor Science and Technology 25 063001 (2012) [2] Abshire et al Laser Applications to Chemical, Security and Environmental Analysis, (Optical Society of America, 2008) paper LMA4 [3] Verma et al Applied Physics Letters 105 022602 (2014)

Photon-sparse microscopy: Trans-wavelength ghost imaging

Ghost imaging systems use down-conversion sources that produce twin output beams of position-correlated photons to produce an image of an object using photons that did not interact with the object. One of these beams illuminates the object and is detected by a single pixel detector while the image information is recovered from the second, spatially correlated, beam. We utilize this technique to obtain images of objects probed with 1.5μm photons whilst developing the image using a highly efficient, low-noise, photon-counting camera detecting the correlated photons at 460nm. The efficient transfer of the image information from infrared illumination to visible detection wavelengths and the ability to count single-photons allows the acquisition of an image while illuminating the object with an optical power density of only 100 pJ cm-2 s-1. We apply image reconstruction techniques based on compressive sensing to reconstruct our images from data sets containing far fewer photons than conventionally required. This wavelength-transforming ghost imaging technique has potential for the imaging of light-sensitive specimens or where covert operation is desired.