Nicholas E. Fuhrman

Tree Encroachment in Forest Openings: a Case Study From Buffalo Mountain, Virginia

Abstract In eastern forests, openings dominated by grasses, forbs, or shrubs are areas of conservation concern because they typically contain endemic, threatened, and rare plants. Understanding the ecology and mechanisms of tree encroachment would be valuable for conservation managers and would add to a substantial body of literature on forest openings. In this study, we worked in grass-dominated forest openings on Buffalo Mountain, Virginia using a method that combined dendrochronology and belt transects to assess tree encroachment. We discovered both stable ecotones and areas where trees were invading the formerly grass-dominated openings. Both gradual and episodic patterns of tree encroachment were identified; however, successful tree establishment always initiated from the edge of the forest-grass ecotone and progressed towards the center of the opening rather than occurring across the entire forest opening. This spatial pattern of recruitment implies that successional facilitation is necessary for tree encroachment in forested openings at Buffalo Mountain.

An Evaluation of the 4-H "Health Rocks" Program: Implications for Program Improvement.

The National 4-H Council developed the Health Rocks substance abuse educational program to prevent youth from engaging in risky behaviors. The program was presented in 2010 to more than 8,000 middle school youth in Georgia. A post-then-pre evaluation was conducted with youth who completed 10 hours of instruction to determine if changes in youth knowledge, beliefs/attitudes, skills, and behavioral intentions occurred during the course of the program. This study sought to measure the impact of the program and critically evaluate the questionnaire used. The data revealed statistically significant increases in knowledge, beliefs/attitudes, skills, and behavioral intentions of participating youth. Suggestions for improvement of the questionnaire included utilizing questions that are more specific to the curriculum and adding questions to measure the influence of peer pressure.

Naming "Animal Ambassadors" in an Educational Presentation: Effects on Learner Knowledge Retention.

ABSTRACT This study examined the effect of naming animals used in education on the knowledge retention of college students. Researchers implemented owl educational presentations to students using a live owl during each presentation. The control group was given the common name of the owl whereas the treatment group was given only an anthropomorphized name for the owl. Students completed a knowledge questionnaire following the presentation. Findings indicated that the treatment group significantly retained more information on owl adaptations than the control group. Future research should explore the use of anthropomorphized names for animals used in education, particularly with male learners.

The Impacts of a National Internship Program on Interns' Perceived Leadership, Critical Thinking, and Communication Skills.

At perhaps all levels of education, strong leadership skills are often equated with the ability to engage in critical thinking, and effective oral and written communication. The purpose of this study was to identify the self-perceived expansion of animal health interns’ leadership, critical thinking and communication competencies using the University of Florida – Engagement, Cognitive Maturity, and Innovativeness (UF-EMI) and Leadership Skills Inventory (LSI) assessments. For the UF-EMI, the total mean score of the pre-critical thinking disposition of all interns was 104.73; post-critical thinking disposition was 114.46, an increase of 9.73. Results of the LSI indicate just 70% accept who they are and don’t see themselves as good listeners. Introduction/Literature Review College students often have overwhelming concerns when it comes to preparation for employment after graduation (Gault, Redington, & Schlager, 2000). During their matriculation in college, students have a plethora of opportunities to refine their leadership skills (communication, critical thinking, problem solving, etc.) so as to be more competitive in the marketplace where companies may require prior experience as well as strong leadership skills of new hires. Employers look for prior experience to qualify entry-level professionals and according to a 2015 Forbes article many employers feel that recent graduates are unprepared to join the workforce and are unable to apply knowledge and skills such as critical thinking and communication in a real-world setting (Klebnikov, 2015). A study completed by The Association of American Colleges and Universities (AACU) concluded that a large gap exists between Journal of Leadership Education DOI: 10.12806/V16/I2/R2 APR 2017 RESEARCH 24 college students’ feelings about their preparedness level and employers’ feelings about college students level of preparedness. The majority of employers felt that recent college graduates are not prepared for the workforce in areas such as critical thinking skills, written and oral communication skills, and working with others in teams (AACU, 2015). The aforementioned skills are often referred to as “soft skills” and may also include team building, conflict resolution, time management, etc. Soft skills are defined as aspects of social behavior and include communication skills, leadership abilities, and personal qualities such as empathy and friendliness that are required to become successful in life (deRidder, Meysman, Oluwagbemi, & Abeel, 2014). Additionally, soft skills enable a person the ability to effectively relate to others by way of communication, organization, or written skills (Tyagi & Tomar, 2013). Brooks et al. (2008) reported that undergraduates seeking employment positions were heavily focused on technical skills and not so much on soft skills. The study concluded that job candidates need to focus more on critical thinking, problem solving, and analytical skills. Students’ ability to solve problems and be resourceful is non-cognitive (soft) skills viewed by some experts as being of the same importance as mathematics and reading (Adams, 2012). Murti (2014) argues that soft skills are developed through prior relationships, (personal and business) which make them harder to teach and evaluate in a classroom setting. According to a survey by the Workforce Solutions Group at St. Louis Community College, employers acknowledge that recent graduates have high technical expertise in given fields; however, over half of the respondents stated that critical thinking, problem solving, and communication/interpersonal skills are areas new hires are lacking in (St. Louis Community College, 2015). Crawford, Lang, Fink, Dalton, and Fielitz (2011) with support from the Association of Public and Land-grant Universities (APLU) sought to determine which soft skills employers seek in new college graduates. Of seven soft-skill clusters (decision making/problem solving, selfmanagement, teamwork skills, professionalism skills, communication skills, experiences, and leadership skills), the top two ranked by over 250 employers were communication and decisionmaking/problem solving (Crawford et al., 2011). Institutions of higher education that do not provide coursework and/or experiential learning opportunities that strengthen students’ soft skills can be blamed for educating a future workforce that is not adequately prepared to face the challenges of global markets. One experiential learning opportunity that has the potential to positively influence the soft skills of college students is structured internship programs that provide valuable, practical experience for entry-level prospects and promotes on the job training (Walker, 2011). Internships originated in the United States during the early 1900s and the University of Cincinnati is credited with starting the very first internship program in 1906 (Thiel & Hartley, 1997). Internships are a non-traditional educational approach based on experiential learning (Driscoll, 2006). As defined by Kolb (1984), “... [Experiential] learning is described as a process whereby concepts are derived from and continuously modified by experience” (p.26). The four primary steps within Kolb’s model are concrete experience, reflecting on an observation, forming abstract ideas, and active experimentation (Walker, Morgan, Ricketts, & Duncan, 2007). Journal of Leadership Education DOI: 10.12806/V16/I2/R2 APR 2017 RESEARCH 25 Although those participating in experiential learning may enter the cycle at different stages, the sequence must be followed as illustrated in Figure 1 (Kolb, 1984; Walker et al., 2007). Figure 1. The Experiential Learning Cycle (Kolb, 1984) As broadly defined, Internships can include a number of experiential learning activities/platforms and range from apprenticeships and cooperative education, to externships – and are typically completed while the student is enrolled in an academic degree program (Thiel & Hartley, 1997). Apprenticeships are a paid position for someone who has decided on a career path and is looking to obtain in-depth knowledge in a specific field. In Europe, youth apprenticeships date back to the early nineteenth century and are still a vital component of European training systems (Olson, 1993; Snell, 1996). Cooperative education or co-op is a paid internship that allows college students to work with professionals in their field of study to enhance academic training (Blair, Milea, & Hammer, 2004). Externships are typically an unpaid training program offered by educational institutions and private businesses that give students brief practical experiences in their field of study and may be directly tied to a course (Smith, 2013). The benefits of internship programs to students, colleges and universities, and industry leaders are deep and broad. Internships offer students the opportunity to apply classroom knowledge in a real world context (Mello, 2006; Sides & Mrvica, 2007), and students who complete internships are able to return to the classroom and share their knowledge and experiences with their peers, and add relevancy to learning (Swift & Kent, 1999). Additionally, Coco’s (2000) study discovered that over ninety percent of respondents denoted that an internship provided an experiential advantage when it came to finding a job. Finally, internships enable students to clarify career goals (Divine, Linrud, Miller, & Wilson, 2007) and aid them in transitioning from an academic setting to a career workplace setting (Taylor, 1998). The reputation and visibility of a college or university can be enhanced through internship programs (Coco, 2000) and relationships are fostered with companies in the community by way of internships, as well as nationally, which in turn benefits the institutions (Divine, et al., 2007). Additionally, internship programs may potentially increase enrollment through the attraction of the required offering (Divine, et al., 2007). Finally, institutions that foster and nurture relationships between internship programs hold long-term benefits such as Journal of Leadership Education DOI: 10.12806/V16/I2/R2 APR 2017 RESEARCH 26 increased availability of classroom speakers, increased participation in job fairs, increased contacts for development personnel in various fundraising efforts, and future student placement in internship programs (Coco, 2000; Divine, et al., 2007; Gault, et al., 2000). Employers benefit from internships by being able to get a glimpse at a student’s work ethic without having to hire them (Coco, 2000; Gault, et al., 2000; Knemeyer & Murphy, 2001) and secure inexpensive and often quality labor (Coco, 2000; Gault, et al., 2000). Additionally, companies can utilize interns during busy times of the year with no long-term commitments (Divine, et al., 2007) and can evaluate potential employees prior to making long-term commitments. Dobratz, Singh, and Abbey (2014) conducted a thorough review of the literature regarding the values of internships for students, institutions, and institutions – their findings are presented in Table 1. Journal of Leadership Education DOI: 10.12806/V16/I2/R2 APR 2017 RESEARCH 27 Table 1 Benefits of internships to.... Students Institutions Employers Potentially earn money while receiving a learning experience (Thiel & Hartley, 1997) Enhance the qualifications of professors (Divine, et al., 2007; Thiel & Hartley, 1997) Reduced turnover (Knemeyer & Murphy, 2001) Better interpersonal skills (Beard & Morton, 1999; Divine et. Al., 2007; Thiel & Hartley, 1997; & Gault, Redington & Schlager, 2000) Keeping faculty up-to-date on the community (Divine, et al., 2007) Assists in fundraising potential (Coco, 2000; Gault, Redington, & Schlager, 2000) Ability to evaluate potential employers prior to full-hire (Divine et al., 2007; Gault, Redington, & Schlager, 2000) Showing social responsibility to the community (Thiel & Hartley, 1997) Faster job placement and advancement (Coco,