Nils Aarsæther

Coping Strategies, Social Capital and Space

The theme of this article is the intersection of social and spatial factors in local and regional development. Based on empirical locality studies in the Circumpolar Northern context, the article introduces the concept of coping strategies. Coping strategies include three dimensions: innovation, networking and formation of identity. These dimensions and the ways in which they are interrelated are considered to be important to the forms of local development that can respond to global transformations and transcend institutionalized social fields. Coping strategies are discussed in relation to the different conceptualizations of social capital, and it is argued that while social capital is an asset, coping strategies are socio-spatial practices producing and drawing on social capital. As social capital is a social asset, it is important to transcend common sense understandings of ‘the social capital of the region’; networks between actors in different spatial settings, and relations on a macro level, can also produce social capital. The spatiality of coping strategies can be understood in a continuum from mobility to territoriality, and this continuum can be combined - and not intermixed - with processes of bridging and of bonding. The aim of the article is to provide theoretical inspiration to understand the complex forces at work in local development under conditions of increasing mobility of people, goods and information.

Two networks, one city: Democracy and governance networks in urban transformation

Governance networks are increasingly important in urban planning, in policy implementation and in service provision, and are often organized to improve efficiency and innovation in the pursuit of some public purpose. We argue that their democratic merits, in addition to their efficiency and output aspects, must be taken into consideration if they are to be understood as legitimate problem solvers on behalf of a local democratic authority. Here we draw on entrepreneurial and deliberative perspectives on urban governance, and work out criteria for assessing network performance. The insights of both perspectives are needed, we argue, to study legitimacy in contemporary urban policies, and we ask whether it is possible to strike a balance between democratic procedural standards and producing the desired outcomes. Empirically we compare the performance of a network with a strong entrepreneurial orientation with that of a network with a deliberative orientation, both located in the same city and operating within the same time frame.

Local government strategies and entrepreneurship

Our aim is to examine preconditions for local government intervention to promote entrepreneurial behaviour in rural areas with population decline. In the Nordic countries, the legal framework allows local government to take an active part in community development, e.g., to stimulate business as well as cultural activities. In Norway, even small rural municipalities are in command of, or are given access to financial and organisational resources that can be mobilised for community development. When acting outside their public welfare commitments, the municipal leaders deploy strategies of network governance, in which boundaries between and within public and private sectors are downplayed, to promote flexibility and inclusion of the interests in the broader community. In the present study, we compare four rural municipalities in Northern Norway with respect to their leadership strategies and entrepreneurial projects, and we examine the outcome of their developmental activities. A striking finding is that municipalities with rather similar structural characteristics differ with respect to strategies deployed and developmental success. What makes some municipalities better than others in creating an environment for entrepreneurial and innovative behaviour? Our findings suggest that leadership characteristics and the strength of the municipal economy are important factors.

Evaluating the Democratic Accountability of Governance Networks: Analysing Two Nordic Megaprojects

Abstract There is currently a need to analyse and measure the democratic accountability of governance networks. This kind of analysis and measurement calls for the development of an interactive conceptualisation of democratic accountability that makes it possible to measure the level of democratic accountability of concrete governance networks with reference to the extent to which they interact with (1) relevant politicians appointed through the institutions of representative democracy, (2) the relevant and affected stakeholders, and (3) the wider citizenry. A case study of two governance networks involved in two Nordic megaprojects illustrates how this measurement device can be brought into use and what the insights are that can be gained from it.

Networking for development in the North: power, trust, and local democracy

This paper addresses modes and effects of local government involvement in development projects. In particular, it examines public–private interactions with regard to networking and power relations. The study is based on four development projects involving local authorities, located in two neighbouring municipalities in northern Norway. In these we find that most relationships are balanced and that a networking mode underpins the capacity of ‘getting things done’ or ‘power to’. ‘Power over’ relations, however, are observed over time, related to critical events in the implementation of the projects, and demanding explanations that exceed network analysis approaches. Rather than being classified as a distinct type of governance, networking and networks should be regarded as elements of varying importance in processes that also involve hierarchical and market-based inputs. In the processes studied, we found municipal leaders capable of resuming control by staging metagoverning activities.

Innovations in Ethnic Landscapes: A Study of Innovations in Three Municipalities in Northern Norway

Abstract Are people in the extreme periphery able to innovate? This study covers three multi-ethnic municipalities in Northern Norway, and the research question is to what extent local institutions are linked to innovative processes. Two dominant institutions are addressed: The local government institution, and the ethnic traditions (a mix of Sami, Kven, Norwegian) of the municipalities in question. The research uncovered a substantial number (42) of innovative processes in these municipalities, and seven of these have been selected for a followup study. The selection is based on an assessment of the transformative character of the innovation, and the researchers have tried to cover a broad innovation field, including also public sector and civil society innovative processes, in addition to commercial innovations. It turned out that most of the selected innovations had strong links to the specific ethnic contexts of these municipalities, and that the municipal institution also played a significantrole in their implementation. Further, Kåfjord, the most deprived of these three municipalities—the one suffering a severe population loss 1980–2000—turned out to be the one with the largest number of innovations reported, and also showing innovations profiting from a interlinking of technology, tourism, identity politics and networking with the outside world. In sum, the study points to the potentials also of very small and remote communities in the future, to the extent that they are able to combine traditional elements—in the case of Kåfjord an ethnic revival as Coast Sami people—with commercial, political and technological elements.

Organizational and Spatial Determinants of Fiscal Stress: An analysis of Norwegian Municipalities

Two types of factors are thought to lead to fiscal stress of municipalities in Norway: municipal organization and spatial characteristics. Organizational and political factors include the rationality of the agency of government, the ability of the resource coordinator to achieve a balance, and the coordination of governmental policies. Spatial factors include industrial presence and north-south regional differences. Only the two spatial variables are significantly correlated with the budget difficulties. Case studies, though, show organizational factors and the interplay between organizational and spatial factors can be important determinants for fiscal stress.

Institutional design and central - locking strategies: introducing the new block grants system in Norway

When special grants are replaced by block grants in a central–local financing system, central government steering of the communalized welfare sectors can no longer be based on economic incentives. In this paper the potential for central government control over welfare policies under block-grants conditions is discussed, with particular reference to the change in the Norwegian transfers system. It is argued that, given high ambitions for the welfare state at the central level, a central government may find legislation to be an insufficient means of control, and it may be more likely to search for new types of economic incentives to make the communes perform according to the priorities of the national welfare state. In doing so, however, the central government must find methods of legitimizing a partial return to old practices that do not contradict the principle of block grants.