Nima Badie

Mesoscopic hydrogel molding to control the 3D geometry of bioartificial muscle tissues

This protocol describes a cell/hydrogel molding method for precise and reproducible biomimetic fabrication of three-dimensional (3D) muscle tissue architectures in vitro. Using a high aspect ratio soft lithography technique, we fabricate polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS) molds containing arrays of mesoscopic posts with defined size, elongation and spacing. On cell/hydrogel molding, these posts serve to enhance the diffusion of nutrients to cells by introducing elliptical pores in the cell-laden hydrogels and to guide local 3D cell alignment by governing the spatial pattern of mechanical tension. Instead of ultraviolet or chemical cross-linking, this method utilizes natural hydrogel polymerization and topographically constrained cell-mediated gel compaction to create the desired 3D tissue structures. We apply this method to fabricate several square centimeter large, few hundred micron-thick bioartificial muscle tissues composed of viable, dense, uniformly aligned and highly differentiated cardiac or skeletal muscle fibers. The protocol takes 4–5 d to fabricate PDMS molds followed by 2 weeks of cell culture.

Novel Micropatterned Cardiac Cell Cultures with Realistic Ventricular Microstructure

Systematic studies of cardiac structure-function relationships to date have been hindered by the intrinsic complexity and variability of in vivo and ex vivo model systems. Thus, we set out to develop a reproducible cell culture system that can accurately replicate the realistic microstructure of native cardiac tissues. Using cell micropatterning techniques, we aligned cultured cardiomyocytes at micro- and macroscopic spatial scales to follow local directions of cardiac fibers in murine ventricular cross sections, as measured by high-resolution diffusion tensor magnetic resonance imaging. To elucidate the roles of ventricular tissue microstructure in macroscopic impulse conduction, we optically mapped membrane potentials in micropatterned cardiac cultures with realistic tissue boundaries and natural cell orientation, cardiac cultures with realistic tissue boundaries but random cell orientation, and standard isotropic monolayers. At 2 Hz pacing, both microscopic changes in cell orientation and ventricular tissue boundaries independently and synergistically increased the spatial dispersion of conduction velocity, but not the action potential duration. The realistic variations in intramural microstructure created unique spatial signatures in micro- and macroscopic impulse propagation within ventricular cross-section cultures. This novel in vitro model system is expected to help bridge the existing gap between experimental structure-function studies in standard cardiac monolayers and intact heart tissues.

Structural coupling of cardiomyocytes and noncardiomyocytes: quantitative comparisons using a novel micropatterned cell pair assay.

Well-controlled studies of the structural and functional interactions between cardiomyocytes and other cells are essential for understanding heart pathophysiology and for the further development of safe and efficient cell therapies. We established a novel in vitro assay composed of a large number of individual micropatterned cell pairs with reproducible shape, size, and region of cell-cell contact. This assay was applied to quantify and compare the frequency of expression and distribution of electrical (connexin43) and mechanical (N-cadherin) coupling proteins in 5,000 cell pairs made of cardiomyocytes (CMs), cardiac fibroblasts (CFs), skeletal myoblasts (SKMs), and mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs). We found that for all cell pair types, side-side contacts between two cells formed 4.5-14.3 times more often than end-end contacts. Both connexin43 and N-cadherin were expressed in all homotypic CM pairs but in only 13.4-91.6% of pairs containing noncardiomyocytes, where expression was either junctional (at the site of cell-cell contact) or diffuse (inside the cytoplasm). CM expression was exclusively junctional in homotypic pairs but predominantly diffuse in heterotypic pairs. Noncardiomyocyte homotypic pairs exhibited diffuse expression 1.7-8.7 times more often than junctional expression, which was increased 2.6-4.4 times in heterotypic pairs. Junctional connexin43 and N-cadherin expression, respectively, were found in 38.6 +/- 7.3 and 39.6 +/- 6.2% of CM-MSC pairs, 21.9 +/- 5.0 and 13.6 +/- 1.9% of CM-SKM pairs, and in only 3.8-9.6% of CM-CF pairs. Measured frequencies of protein expression and distribution were stable for at least 4 days. Described studies in micropatterned cell pairs shed new light on cellular interactions relevant for cardiac function and cell therapies.

Reflective interferometric chamber for quantitative phase imaging of biological sample dynamics

We introduce a new interferometric setup for single-exposure wide-field holographic phase imaging of highly dynamic biological samples. In this setup, the interferometric signal originates from a specially designed reflective interferometric chamber (InCh), creating an off-axis interferogram on the output plane of the system. The setup only requires the InCh and a simple reflection-mode two lens imaging system, without the need for additional optical elements such as gratings in the beam path. In addition, due to the close-to-common-path geometry of the setup, phase noise is greatly reduced. We experimentally compare the inherent phase stability of the system in ambient conditions to that of a conventional interferometer. We also demonstrate use of this system for wide-field quantitative phase imaging of two different highly dynamic, optically transparent biological samples: beating myocardial cells and moving unicellular microorganisms.

A method to measure myocardial calcium handling in adult Drosophila.

Rationale: Normal cardiac physiology requires highly regulated cytosolic Ca2+ concentrations and abnormalities in Ca2+ handling are associated with heart failure. The majority of approaches to identifying the components that regulate intracellular Ca2+ dynamics rely on cells in culture, mouse models, and human samples. However, a genetically robust system for unbiased screens of mutations that affect Ca2+ handling remains a challenge. Objective: We sought to develop a new method to measure myocardial Ca2+ cycling in adult Drosophila and determine whether cardiomyopathic fly hearts recapitulate aspects of diseased mammalian myocardium. Methods and Results: Using engineered transgenic Drosophila that have cardiac-specific expression of Ca2+-sensing fluorescent protein, GCaMP2, we developed methods to measure parameters associated with myocardial Ca2+ handling. The following key observations were identified: (1) Control w1118 Drosophila hearts have readily measureable Ca2+-dependent fluorescent signals that are dependent on L-type Ca2+ channels and SR Ca2+ stores and originate from rostral and caudal pacemakers. (2) A fly mutant, held-up2 (hdp2), that has a point mutation in troponin I and has a dilated cardiomyopathic phenotype demonstrates abnormalities in myocardial Ca2+ handling that include increases in the duration of the 50% rise in intensity to peak intensity, the half-time of fluorescence decline from peak, the full duration at half-maximal intensity, and decreases in the linear slope of decay from 80% to 20% intensity decay. (3) Hearts from hdp2 mutants had reductions in caffeine-induced Ca2+ increases and reductions in ryanodine receptor (RyR) without changes in L-type Ca2+ channel transcripts in comparison with w1118. Conclusions: Our results show that the cardiac-specific expression of GCaMP2 provides a means of characterizing propagating Ca2+ transients in adult fly hearts. Moreover, the adult fruit fly heart recapitulates several aspects of Ca2+ regulation observed in mammalian myocardium. A mutation in Drosophila that causes an enlarged cardiac chamber and impaired contractile function is associated with abnormalities in the cytosolic Ca2+ transient as well as changes in transcript levels of proteins associated with Ca2+ handling. This new methodology has the potential to permit an examination of evolutionarily conserved myocardial Ca2+-handing mechanisms by applying the vast resources available in the fly genomics community to conduct genetic screens to identify new genes involved in generated Ca2+ transients and arrhythmias.

Conduction block in micropatterned cardiomyocyte cultures replicating the structure of ventricular cross-sections

AIMS Structural and functional heterogeneities in cardiac tissue have been implicated in conduction block and arrhythmogenesis. However, the propensity of specific sites within the heart to initiate conduction block has not been systematically explored. We utilized cardiomyocyte cultures replicating the realistic, magnetic resonance imaging-measured tissue boundaries and fibre directions of ventricular cross-sections to investigate their roles in the development of conduction block. METHODS AND RESULTS The Sprague-Dawley neonatal rat cardiomyocytes were micropatterned to obtain cultures with realistic ventricular tissue boundaries and either random or realistic fibre directions. Rapid pacing was applied at multiple sites, with action potential propagation optically mapped. Excitation either failed at the stimulus site or conduction block developed remotely, often initiating reentry. The incidence of conduction block in isotropic monolayers (0% of cultures) increased with the inclusion of realistic tissue boundaries (17%) and further with realistic fibre directions (34%). Conduction block incidence was stimulus site-dependent and highest (77%) with rapid pacing from the right ventricular (RV) free wall. Furthermore, conduction block occurred exclusively at the insertion of the RV free wall into the septum, where structure-mediated current source-load mismatches acutely reduced wavefront and waveback velocity. Tissue boundaries and sharp gradients in fibre direction uniquely determined the evolution, shape, and position of conduction block lines. CONCLUSION Our study suggests that specific micro- and macrostructural features of the ventricle determine the incidence and spatiotemporal characteristics of conduction block, independent of spatial heterogeneities in ion channel expression.

Quantifying Electrical Interactions between Cardiomyocytes and Other Cells in Micropatterned Cell Pairs

Micropatterning is a powerful technique to control cell shape and position on a culture substrate. In this chapter, we describe the method to reproducibly create large numbers of micropatterned heterotypic cell pairs with defined size, shape, and length of cell-cell contact. These cell pairs can be utilized in patch clamp recordings to quantify electrical interactions between cardiomyocytes and non-cardiomyocytes.

Collision-Based Spiral Acceleration in Cardiac Media: Roles of Wavefront Curvature and Excitable Gap

We have previously shown in experimental cardiac cell monolayers that rapid point pacing can convert basic functional reentry (single spiral) into a stable multiwave spiral that activates the tissue at an accelerated rate. Here, our goal is to further elucidate the biophysical mechanisms of this rate acceleration without the potential confounding effects of microscopic tissue heterogeneities inherent to experimental preparations. We use computer simulations to show that, similar to experimental observations, single spirals can be converted by point stimuli into stable multiwave spirals. In multiwave spirals, individual waves collide, yielding regions with negative wavefront curvature. When a sufficient excitable gap is present and the negative-curvature regions are close to spiral tips, an electrotonic spread of excitatory currents from these regions propels each colliding spiral to rotate faster than the single spiral, causing an overall rate acceleration. As observed experimentally, the degree of rate acceleration increases with the number of colliding spiral waves. Conversely, if collision sites are far from spiral tips, excitatory currents have no effect on spiral rotation and multiple spirals rotate independently, without rate acceleration. Understanding the mechanisms of spiral rate acceleration may yield new strategies for preventing the transition from monomorphic tachycardia to polymorphic tachycardia and fibrillation.

Spatial Profiles of Electrical Mismatch Determine Vulnerability to Conduction Failure Across a Host–Donor Cell Interface

Background—Electrophysiological mismatch between host cardiomyocytes and donor cells can directly affect the electrical safety of cardiac cell therapies; however, the ability to study host–donor interactions at the microscopic scale in situ is severely limited. We systematically explored how action potential (AP) differences between cardiomyocytes and other excitable cells modulate vulnerability to conduction failure in vitro. Methods and Results—AP propagation was optically mapped at 75 &mgr;m resolution in micropatterned strands (n=152) in which host neonatal rat ventricular myocytes (AP duration=153.2±2.3 ms, conduction velocity=22.3±0.3 cm/s) seamlessly interfaced with genetically engineered excitable donor cells expressing inward rectifier potassium (Kir2.1) and cardiac sodium (Nav1.5) channels with either weak (conduction velocity=3.1±0.1 cm/s) or strong (conduction velocity=22.1±0.4 cm/s) electrical coupling. Selective prolongation of engineered donor cell AP duration (31.9–139.1 ms) by low-dose BaCl2 generated a wide range of host–donor repolarization time (RT) profiles with maximum gradients (∇RTmax) of 5.5 to 257 ms/mm. During programmed stimulation of donor cells, the vulnerable time window for conduction block across the host–donor interface most strongly correlated with ∇RTmax. Compared with well-coupled donor cells, the interface composed of poorly coupled cells significantly shortened the RT profile width by 19.7% and increased ∇RTmax and vulnerable time window by 22.2% and 19%, respectively. Flattening the RT profile by perfusion of 50 &mgr;mol/L BaCl2 eliminated coupling-induced differences in vulnerability to block. Conclusions—Our results quantify how the degree of electrical mismatch across a cardiomyocyte–donor cell interface affects vulnerability to conduction block, with important implications for the design of safe cardiac cell and gene therapies.