Odile Huet

Quantum well infrared photodetectors: present and future

A review of the III-V Lab activities in the field of quantum well infrared photodetectors (QWIPs) is presented. We discuss the specific advantages of this type of detector and present the production facilities and status. A large section is dedicated to broadband QWIPs for space applications and to QWIPs on InP for mid-wavelength infrared detection. We review the progress of QWIP technology for the next generation (dual band, polarimetric, and multispectral) of thermal imagers. Finally, the state-of-the-art of very long wavelength QWIPs is discussed.

Spectral cross-talk in dual-band quantum well infrared detectors

We propose a general definition of the spectral cross-talk in dual-band infrared (IR) photodetectors, based on the common information carried by the spectral channels. This definition includes detector characteristics as well as scene characteristics and can be applied to any real configuration. We use it to evaluate narrowband and wideband quantum well infrared photodetector structures and set up their interest for dual-band imaging. The spectral cross-talk is negligible for interband IR (3–5μm∕8–12μm) applications and can be minimized for intraband IR (8–12μm) applications by properly tailoring the responsivity peaks.

Two color QWIP and extended wavebands

Since 2002, the THALES Group has been manufacturing sensitive arrays using QWIP technology based on GaAs and related III-V compounds, at THALES Research and Technology Laboratory. The QWIP technology allows the realization of large staring arrays for Thermal Imagers (TI) working in the long-wave infrared (LWIR) band (8-12 μm). In the past researchers claimed many advantages of QWIPs. Uniformity was one of these and has been the key parameter for the production to start. The 640x512 LWIR focal plane arrays (FPAs) with 20μm pitch was the demonstration that state of the art performances can be achieved even with small pixels. This opened the field for the realization of usable and affordable megapixel FPAs. Thales Research & Technology (TRT) has been developing third generation GaAs LWIR QWIP arrays for volume manufacture of high performance low cost thermal imaging cameras. In the past, another widely claimed advantage for QWIPs was the so-called band-gap engineering and versatility of the III-V processing allowing the custom design of quantum structures to fulfil the requirements of specific applications such as very long wavelength (VLWIR) or multispectral detection. In this presentation, we present the performances of both our first 384x288, 25 μm pitch, MWIR (3-5μm) / LWIR (8-9 μm) dual-band FPAs, and the current status of QWIPs for MWIR (< 5μm) and VLWIR (>15μm) arrays.

InGaAs focal plane array developments at III-V Lab

SWIR detection band benefits from natural (sun, night glow, thermal radiation) or artificial (eye safe lasers) photons sources combined to low atmospheric absorption and specific contrast compared to visible wavelengths. It gives the opportunity to address a large spectrum of applications such as defense and security (night vision, active imaging), space (earth observation), transport (automotive safety) or industry (non destructive process control). InGaAs material appears as a good candidate to satisfy SWIR detection needs. The lattice matching with InP constitutes a double advantage to this material: attractive production capacity and uncooled operation thanks to low dark current level induced by high quality material. For few years, III-VLab has been studying InGaAs imagery, gathering expertise in InGaAs material growth and imaging technology respectively from Alcatel-Lucent and Thales, its two mother companies. This work has lead to put quickly on the market a 320x256 InGaAs module, exhibiting high performances in terms of dark current, uniformity and quantum efficiency. In this paper, we present the last developments achieved in our laboratory, mainly focused on increasing the pixels number to VGA format associated to pixel pitch decrease (15μm) and broadening detection spectrum toward visible wavelengths. Depending on targeted applications, different Read Out Integrated Circuits (ROIC) have been used. Low noise ROIC have been developed by CEA LETI to fit the requirements of low light level imaging whereas logarithmic ROIC designed by NIT allows high dynamic imaging adapted for automotive safety.

QWIP from 4μm up to 18μm

Standard GaAs/AlGaAs Quantum Well Infrared Photodetectors (QWIP) are considered as a technological choice for 3rdgeneration thermal imagers [1], [2]. Since 2001, the THALES Group has been manufacturing sensitive arrays using AsGa based QWIP technology at THALES Research and Technology Laboratory. This QWIP technology allows the realization of large staring arrays for Thermal Imagers (TI) working in the Infrared region of the spectrum. The main advantage of this GaAs detector technology is that it is also used for other commercial devices. The GaAs industry has lead to important improvements over the last ten years and it reaches now an undeniable level of maturity. As a result the key parameters to reach high production yield: large substrate and good uniformity characteristics, have already been achieved. Considering defective pixels, the main usual features are a high operability (> 99.9%) and a low number of clusters having a maximum of 4 dead pixels. Another advantage of this III-V technology is the versatility of the design and processing phases. It allows customizing both the quantum structure and the pixel architecture in order to fulfill the requirements of any specific applications. The spectral response of QWIPs is intrinsically resonant but the quantum structure can be designed for a given detection wavelength window ranging from MWIR, LWIR to VLWIR.

Focal Plane Arrays from UV up to VLWIR

Since 2002, the THALES Group has been manufacturing sensitive arrays using QWIP technology based on GaAs and related III-V compounds, at the Alcatel-Thales-III-V Lab (formerly part of THALES Research and Technology Laboratory). In the past researchers claimed many advantages of QWIPs. Uniformity was one of these and has been the key parameter for the production to start. Another widely claimed advantage for QWIPs was the so-called band-gap engineering and versatility of the III-V processing allowing the custom design of quantum structures to fulfil the requirements of specific applications such as very long wavelength (VLWIR) or multispectral detection. In this presentation, we give the status of our LWIR QWIP production line, and also the current status of QWIPs for MWIR (<5μm) and VLWIR (>15μm) arrays. As the QWIP technology cannot cover the full electromagnetic spectrum, we develop other semiconductor compounds for SWIR and UV applications. We present here the status of our first FPA realization in UV with GaN alloy, and at 1.5μm with InGaAs photodiodes.

15 μm pixel-pitch VGA InGaAs module for very low background applications

Thanks to the high transmission coefficient of short infrared wavelengths in the atmosphere and specific contrasts, SWIR imaging is an attractive technology for space applications such as astronomical or earth observation. Detection module must demonstrate high uniformity, sensitivity and resolution combined with compactness to meet the needs of this application field. Image sensors based on InGaAs photodiodes arrays present very low dark currents even at ambient temperature as high quality materials can be grown on InP substrates. Besides, the suppression of InP substrate after hybridization is a way to extend the detection range towards visible wavelengths. These properties result in a new generation of sensitive, compact and multifunctional InGaAs detection modules. In this paper, we describe the performances of an uncooled VGA InGaAs module recently developed. The 640x512 array with a pitch of 15μm allows high resolution images. The excellent crystalline quality induces very low dark current densities at ambient temperature. The readout circuit is based on a capacitive trans-impedance amplifier with correlated double sampling resulting in low readout noise figure. This compact module appears as a serious alternative to the existing technologies for low light level imaging in the [0.4μm-1.7μm] spectral range.

Toward a single-chip TECless/NUCless InGaAs SWIR camera with 120-dB intrinsic operation dynamic range

This paper describes a single-chip InGaAs SWIR camera with more than 120dB instant operational dynamic range with an innovative CMOS ROIC technology, so called MAGIC, invented and patented by New Imaging Technologies. A 320x256- pixel InGaAs 25μm pitch photodiode array, designed and fabricated by III-Vlab/Thales Research & Technology(TRT), has been hybridized on this new generation CMOS ROIC. With NITs MAGIC technology, the sensors output follows a precise logarithmic law in function of incoming photon flux and gives instant operational dynamic range (DR) better than 120 dB. The ROIC incorporates the entire video signal processing function including a CCIR TV encoder, so a complete SWIR InGaAs camera with standard video output has been realized on a single 30x30 mm2 PCB board with ¼ W power consumption. Neither TEC nor NUC is needed from room temperature operation. The camera can be switched on and off instantly, ideal for all the portable battery operated SWIR band observation applications. The measured RMS noise and FPN noise on the prototype sensor in dark conditions are 0.4 mV and 0.27 mV respectively. The signal excursion from pixel is about 300mV over the 120 dB dynamic range. The FPN remains almost constant over the whole operation dynamic range. The NEI has been measured to be 3,71E+09 ph/s/cm2 with 92 equivalent noise photons at 25Hz frame rate, better than the same architecture of InGaAs photodiode array hybridized on an Indigo ROIC ISC9809 with a pitch of 30 μm for which a readout noise of 120 electrons is observed.

High dynamic solutions for short-wavelength infrared imaging based on InGaAs

Short-wavelength infrared image sensors based on p-i-n photodiode arrays present a tremendous interest in applications such as passive and active imagery for laser detection/warning, hot spot or detection for lasers sensors, enhanced vision systems or low light level sensors. The capability to work at room temperature with dark current equivalent to silicon-based devices is another motivation for the fast development of this technology. This paper presents several modules and camera based on InGaAs photodiode arrays from the III-VLab. First, we describe the electro-optics performance in terms of dark signal, sensitivity, and particularly the visible extension capability. We also present a nucless logarithmic sensor based on a 1/2 video graphics array (VGA) format at a pitch of 25 μm initially designed for visible CMOS camera chip. We will also present the next generation of focal plane arrays based on a VGA format of 640×512 pixels with a pitch of 15 μm. This array will be associated to a CTIA readout circuit and also to an innovative CMOS logarithmic wide dynamic range ROIC, developed by New Imaging Technologies. This VGA logarithmic device developed for automotive safety will involve visible extension capability in a European project named 2Wide_sense.