Øivind Ekeberg

Fatigue in the general Norwegian population: Normative data and associations

Population norms for interpretation of fatigue measurements have been lacking, and the sociodemographic associations of fatigue are poorly documented. A random sample of 3500 Norwegians, aged 19-80 years, was therefore investigated. A mailed questionnaire included the fatigue questionnaire (11 items) in which the sum score of the responses (each scored 0, 1, 2, 3) is designated as total fatigue (TF). Sixty-seven percent of those receiving the questionnaire responded. Women (TF mean=12.6) were more fatigued than men (TF mean=11.9), and 11.4% reported substantial fatigue lasting 6 months or longer. TF and age were weakly correlated (men: r=0.17; women: r=0.09). No firm associations between fatigue and social variables were found. Disabled and subjects reporting health problems were more fatigued than subjects at work or in good health. Fatigue is highly prevalent in somatic and psychiatric disorders, but is often neglected. This national representative sample provides age- and gender-specific norms that will allow for comparisons and interpretations of fatigue scores in future studies.

Hodgkin's Disease Survivors More Fatigued Than the General Population

PURPOSE To estimate the level of fatigue and frequency of fatigue cases among Hodgkins disease survivors (HDS) and compare them with normative data from the general population. PATIENTS AND METHODS A cross-sectional follow-up study was done of 557 HDS (age range, 19 to 74 years) treated at the Norwegian Radium Hospital from 1971 to 1991. The sample was approached by mail, and their data were compared with normative data from 2,214 controls (age range, 19 to 74 years) representative of the general Norwegian population. Of the 557 HDS, 459 (82%) responded. The mean age (+/- SD) at the time of study was 44+/-12 years, and the mean observation time was 12+/-6 years. The Fatigue Questionnaire (11 items) measures physical and mental fatigue. Two systems of scoring were used, dichotomized (0, 0, 1, and 1) and Likert (0, 1, 2, and 3). Total fatigue (TF) constitutes the sum of all the Likert scores. Caseness was defined as a total dichotomized score of > or =4 and fatigue that lasted 6 months or longer. RESULTS The HDS had significantly higher levels of TF than the controls (14.3 v 12.2) (P < .001). Fatigue among the HDS equaled that of the controls in poorest health. More HDS (61%) than controls (31%) reported fatigue symptoms lasting 6 months or longer (P < .001). Fatigue cases were more frequent among HDS (men, 24%; women, 27%) than among the controls (men, 9%; women, 12%) (P < .001). Disease stage/substage IB/IIB predicted fatigue caseness (P = .03). No significant associations were found between treatment characteristics and fatigue. CONCLUSION Hodgkins disease survivors are considerably more fatigued than the general population and report fatigue of a substantially longer duration.

Factors in medical school that predict postgraduate mental health problems in need of treatment. A nationwide and longitudinal study

Physicians show an increased prevalence of mental health problems, the first postgraduate years being particularly stressful.

The impact of job stress and working conditions on mental health problems among junior house officers. A nationwide Norwegian prospective cohort study

Previous studies have shown that physicians have an increased risk of mental health problems such as depression, suicide and substance abuse.

Posttraumatic stress, anxiety and depression symptoms in patients during the first year post intensive care unit discharge

IntroductionTo study the level and predictors of posttraumatic stress, anxiety and depression symptoms in medical, surgical and trauma patients during the first year post intensive care unit (ICU) discharge.MethodsOf 255 patients included, 194 participated at 12 months. Patients completed the Impact of Event Scale (IES), Hospital Anxiety and Depression Scale (HADS), Life Orientation Test (LOT) at 4 to 6 weeks, 3 and 12 months and ICU memory tool at the first assessment (baseline). Case level for posttraumatic stress symptoms with high probability of a posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) was ≥ 35. Case level of HADS-Anxiety or Depression was ≥ 11. Memory of pain during ICU stay was measured at baseline on a five-point Likert-scale (0-low to 4-high). Patient demographics and clinical variables were controlled for in logistic regression analyses.ResultsMean IES score one year after ICU treatment was 22.5 (95%CI 20.0 to 25.1) and 27% (48/180) were above case level, IES ≥ 35. No significant differences in the IES mean scores across the three time points were found (P = 0.388). In a subgroup, 27/170 (16%), patients IES score increased from 11 to 32, P < 0.001. No differences in posttraumatic stress, anxiety or depression between medical, surgical and trauma patients were found. High educational level (OR 0.4, 95%CI 0.2 to 1.0), personality trait (optimism) OR 0.9, 95%CI 0.8 to 1.0), factual recall (OR 6.6, 95%CI 1.4 to 31.0) and memory of pain (OR 1.5, 95%CI 1.1 to 2.0) were independent predictors of posttraumatic stress symptoms at one year. Optimism was a strong predictor for less anxiety (OR 0.8, 0.8 to 0.9) and depression symptoms (OR 0.8, 0.8 to 0.9) after one year.ConclusionsThe mean level of posttraumatic stress symptoms in patients one year following ICU treatment was high and one of four were above case level Predictors of posttraumatic stress symptoms were mainly demographics and experiences during hospital stay whereas clinical injury related variables were insignificant. Pessimism was a predictor of posttraumatic stress, anxiety and depression symptoms. A subgroup of patients developed clinically significant distress symptoms during the follow-up period.

Suicide Risk in Cancer Patients From 1960 to 1999

PURPOSE Suicide risk is reportedly higher for cancer patients than for the general population, but estimates vary and analyses of trends are few. The aim of the present study was to determine whether cancer patients had a higher suicide risk between 1960 and 1999. PATIENTS AND METHODS A cohort comprising patients from the Cancer Registry of Norway 1960 to 1997 was linked to suicide diagnosis in the Register of Deaths at Statistics Norway and observed during 1960 to 1999. The cohort consisted of all cancer patients registered in the Cancer Registry of Norway 1960 to 1997 (N = 490,245 patients with 520,823 cancer diagnoses). Suicide was defined according to death certificates based on the International Classification of Diseases (versions 7, 8, 9, and 10). RESULTS During the period, 589 cancer patients (407 males and 182 females) committed suicide. The relative risk was elevated for males and females, with standardized mortality ratios (SMRs) of 1.55 (95% CI, 1.41 to 1.71) and 1.35 (95% CI, 1.17 to 1.56), respectively. Risk was highest in the first months after diagnosis. For both sexes, there was a significant decrease in the relative suicide risk over decades. The risk was markedly increased among male patients with cancer of respiratory organs (SMR, 4.08; 95% CI, 2.96 to 5.47). Otherwise, the SMRs varied from 0.76 to 3.67 across cancer types. CONCLUSION Cancer may be a risk factor for suicide, particularly shortly after diagnosis. However, the relative risk gradually decreased during the period 1960 to 1999.

Multiple predictors of health-related quality of life in early stage breast cancer. Data from a year follow-up study compared with the general population.

Prospective longitudinal health-related quality of life (QOL) data from 161 women newly diagnosed with breast cancer were compared to age-adjusted mean QOL scores from a general female population (n=949). In addition, multiple factors (demographic, personality trait, participation in treatment decision-making, information satisfaction, and medical data), which previous research has indicated affect the QOL of breast cancer patients, were simultaneously investigated in a multivariate model, in order to determine which of these variables have the strongest influence on QOL one year after surgery. QOL was evaluated with the EORTC QLQ-C30 at time of diagnosis, three- and 12-months postoperatively. Women with breast cancer scored significantly lower on emotional, cognitive, and social functioning (p < 0.01) at time of diagnosis compared to the general female population, and continued to score lower on cognitive (p=0.008) and social (p=0.009) functioning one-year after surgery. In addition to the initial QOL, breast conservation surgery was predictive of better physical functioning (p=0.01) and body image (p < 0.0001), while chemotherapy was predictive for poorer role functioning (p=0.01) one year after surgery. Dispositional optimism was predictive for better emotional (p=0.003) and social functioning (p=0.01) one year after surgery. At time of diagnosis and throughout the post-diagnosis period, dispositional optimism was associated with better QOL and fewer symptoms.

Fatigue and Psychiatric Morbidity Among Hodgkin's Disease Survivors

Fatigue is prevalent among cancer patients, including Hodgkins disease survivors (HDS). Fatigue is poorly understood, and the clinical management is consequently difficult. This cross-sectional study examined how fatigue related to psychiatric morbidity among 457 HDS (aged 19-74 years, 56% males) treated during the period 1971-1991. The subjects were mailed a questionnaire including the Fatigue Questionnaire, the Hospital Anxiety and Depression Scale, and measures of previous psychiatric problems. Fatigue correlated moderately with anxiety and depression (r = 0.44 and 0.41 respectively). Twenty-six percent of the HDS had substantial fatigue for 6 months or longer (=cases). They had higher levels of anxiety (mean 7.3, 95% CI 6.4-8.1) and depression (mean 4.5, 95% CI 3.8-5.2) than the non-cases (anxiety: mean 4.3, 95% CI 3.9-4.7; depression: mean 2.1, 95% CI 1.8-2.5). Past psychiatric problems were not reported more commonly among the fatigue cases than among the non-cases. A multiple logistic regression analysis identified age (OR 1.04, 95% CI 1.02-1.06), anxiety (OR 1.2, 95% CI 1.2-1.3), and no self-reported psychiatric symptoms during treatment (OR 2.3, 95% CI 1.3-4.2) as predictors of fatigue caseness. One-half of the fatigue cases among HDS have psychological distress that might respond to treatment. Chronic fatigue among HDS is not predicted by previous psychiatric problems.

Life satisfaction and resilience in medical school – a six-year longitudinal, nationwide and comparative study

BackgroundThis study examined the relationship between life satisfaction among medical students and a basic model of personality, stress and coping. Previous studies have shown relatively high levels of distress, such as symptoms of depression and suicidal thoughts in medical undergraduates. However despite the increased focus on positive psychological health and well-being during the past decades, only a few studies have focused on life satisfaction and coping in medical students. This is the first longitudinal study which has identified predictors of sustained high levels of life satisfaction among medical students.MethodsThis longitudinal, nationwide questionnaire study examined the course of life satisfaction during medical school, compared the level of satisfaction of medical students with that of other university students, and identified resilience factors. T-tests were used to compare means of life satisfaction between and within the population groups. K-means cluster analyses were applied to identify subgroups among the medical students. Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) and logistic regression analyses were used to compare the subgroups.ResultsLife satisfaction decreased during medical school. Medical students were as satisfied as other students in the first year of study, but reported less satisfaction in their graduation year. Medical students who sustained high levels of life satisfaction perceived medical school as interfering less with their social and personal life, and were less likely to use emotion focused coping, such as wishful thinking, than their peers.ConclusionMedical schools should encourage students to spend adequate time on their social and personal lives and emphasise the importance of health-promoting coping strategies.

The course of mental health after miscarriage and induced abortion: a longitudinal, five-year follow-up study

BackgroundMiscarriage and induced abortion are life events that can potentially cause mental distress. The objective of this study was to determine whether there are differences in the patterns of normalization of mental health scores after these two pregnancy termination events.MethodsForty women who experienced miscarriages and 80 women who underwent abortions at the main hospital of Buskerud County in Norway were interviewed. All subjects completed the following questionnaires 10 days (T1), six months (T2), two years (T3) and five years (T4) after the pregnancy termination: Impact of Event Scale (IES), Quality of Life, Hospital Anxiety and Depression Scale (HADS), and another addressing their feelings about the pregnancy termination. Differential changes in mean scores were determined by analysis of covariance (ANCOVA) and inter-group differences were assessed by ordinary least squares methods.ResultsWomen who had experienced a miscarriage had more mental distress at 10 days and six months after the pregnancy termination than women who had undergone an abortion. However, women who had had a miscarriage exhibited significantly quicker improvement on IES scores for avoidance, grief, loss, guilt and anger throughout the observation period. Women who experienced induced abortion had significantly greater IES scores for avoidance and for the feelings of guilt, shame and relief than the miscarriage group at two and five years after the pregnancy termination (IES avoidance means: 3.2 vs 9.3 at T3, respectively, p < 0.001; 1.5 vs 8.3 at T4, respectively, p < 0.001). Compared with the general population, women who had undergone induced abortion had significantly higher HADS anxiety scores at all four interviews (p < 0.01 to p < 0.001), while women who had had a miscarriage had significantly higher anxiety scores only at T1 (p < 0.01).ConclusionThe course of psychological responses to miscarriage and abortion differed during the five-year period after the event. Women who had undergone an abortion exhibited higher scores during the follow-up period for some outcomes. The difference in the courses of responses may partly result from the different characteristics of the two pregnancy termination events.