Ousman A. Nyan

Atopy, intestinal helminth infection and total serum IgE in rural and urban adult Gambian communities

Background The rarity of atopy in traditional societies has been attributed to high parasite‐driven blocking IgE concentrations. Information is lacking on the relationship between atopy, IgE and intestinal helminth infection in African populations.

Family history: an opportunity for early interventions and improved control of hypertension, obesity and diabetes

OBJECTIVEnTo examine whether a family history of high-risk groups for major noncommunicable diseases (NCDs) was a significant risk factor for these conditions among family members in a study population in the Gambia, where strong community and family coherence are important determinants that have to be taken into consideration in promoting lifestyle changes.nnnMETHODSnWe questioned 5389 adults as to any first-degree family history of major noncommunicable diseases (hypertension, obesity, diabetes and stroke), and measured their blood pressure (BP) and body mass index (BMI). Total blood cholesterol, triglyceride, uric acid, and creatinine concentrations were measured in a stratified subsample, as well as blood glucose (2 hours after ingesting 75 g glucose) in persons aged > or = 35 years.nnnFINDINGSnA significant number of subjects reported a family history of hypertension (8.0%), obesity (5.4%), diabetes (3.3%) and stroke (1.4%), with 14.6% of participants reporting any of these NCDs. Subjects with a family history of hypertension had a higher diastolic BP and BMI, higher cholesterol and uric acid concentrations, and an increased risk of obesity. Those with a family history of obesity had a higher BMI and were at increased risk of obesity. Individuals with a family history of diabetes had a higher BMI and higher concentrations of glucose, cholesterol, triglycerides and uric acid, and their risk of obesity and diabetes was increased. Subjects with a family history of stroke had a higher BMI, as well as higher cholesterol, triglyceride and uric acid concentrations.nnnCONCLUSIONSnA family history of hypertension, obesity, diabetes, or stroke was a significant risk factor for obesity and hyperlipidaemia. With increase of age, more pathological manifestations can develop in this high-risk group. Health professionals should therefore utilize every opportunity to include direct family members in health education.Objetivo Determinar si la existencia de unos antecedentes familiares de alto riesgo de sufrir enfermedades no transmisibles (ENT) constituı́a un factor de riesgo relevante para esas dolencias entre los miembros de la familia en una población de estudio de Gambia, paı́s donde los sólidos lazos comunitarios y la cohesión familiar son determinantes importantes que deben tenerse en cuenta a la hora de promover cambios del estilo de vida. Métodos Pedimos a 5389 adultos que mencionaran cualquier antecedente, entre los familiares de primer grado, de ENT importantes (hipertensión, obesidad, diabetes y accidente cerebrovascular), y medimos su tensión arterial (TA) y su ı́ndice de masa corporal (IMC). Se determinaron las concentraciones de colesterol total, triglicéridos, ácido úrico y creatinina en sangre en una submuestra estratificada, ası́ como la glucosa sanguı́nea (dos horas después de ingerir 75 g de glucosa) en las personas de más de 34 años. Resultados Un número importante de individuos refirieron antecedentes familiares de hipertensión (8,0%), obesidad (5,4%), diabetes (3,3%) y accidente cerebrovascular (1,4%), elevándose al 14,6% los participantes que mencionaron cualquiera de esas ENT. Las personas con antecedentes familiares de hipertensión presentaban una TAdiastólica y un IMC superiores a lamedia, concentracionesmayores de colesterol y de ácido úrico y unmayor riesgo de obesidad. Las personas con historia familiar de obesidad tenı́an un IMC mayor y presentaban un riesgo más elevado de obesidad. Los individuos con antecedentes familiares de diabetes presentaban unmayor IMC, niveles más altos de glucosa, colesterol, triglicéridos y ácido úrico, y unmayor riesgo de obesidad y diabetes. Y los individuos con antecedentes familiares de ictus presentaban un IMC más elevado, ası́ como concentraciones más altas de colesterol, triglicéridos y ácido úrico. Conclusión Unos antecedentes familiares de hipertensión, obesidad, diabetes o accidente cerebrovascular constituyen un factor de riesgo importante de obesidad e hiperlipidemia. Con el aumento de la edad, en este grupo de alto riesgo pueden aparecer más manifestaciones patológicas. Ası́ pues, los profesionales de la salud deben aprovechar cuantas oportunidades tengan de extender a los familiares directos la educación sanitaria.OBJECTIVE: To examine whether a family history of high-risk groups for major noncommunicable diseases (NCDs) was a significant risk factor for these conditions among family members in a study population in the Gambia, where strong community and family coherence are important determinants that have to be taken into consideration in promoting lifestyle changes. METHODS: We questioned 5389 adults as to any first-degree family history of major noncommunicable diseases (hypertension, obesity, diabetes and stroke), and measured their blood pressure (BP) and body mass index (BMI). Total blood cholesterol, triglyceride, uric acid, and creatinine concentrations were measured in a stratified subsample, as well as blood glucose (2 hours after ingesting 75 g glucose) in persons aged 35 years. FINDINGS: A significant number of subjects reported a family history of hypertension (8.0%), obesity (5.4%), diabetes (3.3%) and stroke (1.4%), with 14.6% of participants reporting any of these NCDs. Subjects with a family history of hypertension had a higher diastolic BP and BMI, higher cholesterol and uric acid concentrations, and an increased risk of obesity. Those with a family history of obesity had a higher BMI and were at increased risk of obesity. Individuals with a family history of diabetes had a higher BMI and higher concentrations of glucose, cholesterol, triglycerides and uric acid, and their risk of obesity and diabetes was increased. Subjects with a family history of stroke had a higher BMI, as well as higher cholesterol, triglyceride and uric acid concentrations. CONCLUSION: A family history of hypertension, obesity, diabetes, or stroke was a significant risk factor for obesity and hyperlipidaemia. With increase of age, more pathological manifestations can develop in this high-risk group. Health professionals should therefore utilize every opportunity to include direct family members in health education.

Blood pressure patterns and cardiovascular risk factors in rural and urban Gambian communities

Hypertension is emerging as an important public health problem in sub-Saharan Africa. We studied blood pressure (BP) patterns, hypertension and other cardiovascular risk factors in a rural and an urban area of The Gambia. A total of 5389 adults (⩾15 years) were selected by cluster sampling in the capital Banjul and a rural area around Farafenni. A questionnaire was completed, BP, pulse rate, height and weight were recorded. Glucose was measured 2u2009h after a 75u2009g glucose load among participants ⩾35 years (n = 2301); total cholesterol, triglycerides, creatinine and uric acid were measured among a stratified subsample (n = 1075). A total of 7.1% of the study participants had a BP ⩾160/95 mmu2009Hg; 18.4% of them had a BP ⩾140/90 mmu2009Hg. BP was significantly higher in the urban area. BP increased with age in both sexes in both areas. Increasing age was the major independent risk factor for hypertension. Related cardiovascular risk factors (obesity, diabetes and hyperlipidaemia) were significantly more prevalent in the urban area and among hypertensives; 17% of measured hypertensives were aware of this, 73% of people who reported to have been diagnosed as hypertensive before had discontinued treatment; 56% of those who reported being on treatment were normotensive. We conclude that hypertension is no longer rare in either urban or rural Gambians. In the urban site hypertension and related cardiovascular risk factors were more prevalent. Compliance with treatment was low. Interventions aimed at modifying risk factors at the population level, and at improving control of diagnosed hypertension are essential to prevent future increases of cardiovascular morbidity and mortality. In view of limited resources and feasibility of intervention in rural Gambia, these could initially be directed towards urbanised populations.

Stroke Presentation and Outcome in Developing Countries A Prospective Study in The Gambia

Background and Purpose— Despite increasing burden of stroke in Africa, prospective descriptive data are rare. Our objective was to describe, in The Gambia, the clinical outcome of stroke patients admitted to the Royal Victoria Teaching Hospital in the capital Banjul, to assess mortality and morbidity, and propose preventive and therapeutic measures. Methods— Prospective data were collected on consecutive patients older than 15 years old admitted between February 2000 and February 2001 with the diagnosis of nonsubarachnoid stroke. Risk factors, clinical characteristics, and social consequences were assessed using a modified National Institutes of Health Stroke Scale (mNIHSS), the Barthel Activity in Daily Living scale, the Siriraj score for subtypes, and the Bamford criteria for location/extension. Patients were followed-up at home up to 1 year after discharge. Results— Ninety-one percent (148/162) of eligible patients were enrolled and followed-up. Hypertension and smoking were the most prevalent risk factors. Severity was high at admission, especially in women, and was strongly correlated to the outcome. mNIHSS and consciousness level on admission were strong predictors of the mortality risk. Swallowing difficulties at admission, fever, lung infection, and no aspirin treatment were, independently, risk factors for a lethal outcome susceptible to being addressed by treatment. Mortality was 41% in-hospital and 62% after 1 year. In survivors, autonomy levels improved over time. Drug compliance was poor. At home, family members provided care. Long-term socioeconomic and cultural activities were affected in most patients. Conclusions— Case-fatality was high compared with Western cohorts. Preventive measures can be developed. Rational treatment, in the absence of head imaging for initial assessment, requires adapted protocols. Providers should be trained, both at hospital and community levels.

Obesity and Undernutrition and Cardiovascular Risk Factors in Rural and Urban Gambian Communities

OBJECTIVESnThis study documented the prevalence of and cardiovascular risk factors associated with obesity and undernutrition in the Gambia.nnnMETHODSnAdults (> or =15 years; N = 5373) from rural and urban areas completed a questionnaire; their height, weight, and waist and hip circumferences were measured, and their cardiovascular risk factors were assessed.nnnRESULTSnPrevalence of undernutrition (body mass index < 18 kg/m(2)) was 18.0%; all strata of society were affected. Prevalence of obesity (body mass index > or =30 kg/m(2)) was 4.0% but was higher (32.6%) among urban women 35 years or older. Cardiovascular risk factors were more prevalent among obese participants.nnnCONCLUSIONSnUndernutrition coexists with obesity, demonstrating a double burden of disease. Differential interventions should focus on high-risk groups; prevention needs a multisectorial approach.

Nationwide prevalence study of hypertension and related non‐communicable diseases in The Gambia

The prevalence of hypertension, diabetes and obesity in The Gambia was assessed in a 1% population sample of 6048 adults over 15 years of age. 572 (9.5%) subjects were hypertensive according to WHO criteria (a diastolic blood pressure (DBP) of 95 mmHg or above and/or a systolic blood pressure (SBP) of 160 mmHg or above); 325 (5.4%) had a DBP of 95 mmHg or above, and 39 (2.3%) a DBP of 105 mmHg or above; 428 (7.1%) had a SBP of 160 mmHg or above. By less conservative criteria (a DBP of 90 mmHg or above and/or SBP of 140 mmHg or above), 24.2% of subjects were hypertensive. The prevalence of hypertension was similar in the major ethnic groups and in urban and rural communities. Age and obesity were risk factors for hypertension; female sex was an additional risk factor for diastolic hypertension. Several communities had a prevalence of diastolic hypertension double the national rate, and significant community clustering of diastolic hypertension (P < 0.01) was confirmed by Monte Carlo methods. Genetic and/or localized environmental factors (such as diet or Schistosoma haematobium infection), may be involved. 140 (2.3%) subjects were obese. Obesity was associated with female sex, increasing age, urban environment, non‐manual work and diastolic hypertension. Only 14 (0.3%) subjects were found to be diabetic. Hypertension appears to be very prevalent in The Gambia, with a substantial population at risk of developing target organ damage. Further studies to delineate this risk and appropriate interventions to reduce it are needed.

Asthma, smoking and chronic cough in rural and urban adult communities in The Gambia

Background Asthma is reported to be rare in traditional rural communities, but is thought to be increasing as lifestyles become more urbanized or ‘western’.

Absence of association between delayed type hypersensitivity to tuberculin and atopy in children in The Gambia.

Background An inverse association between delayed type hypersensitivity to tuberculin and atopy has been observed in children, suggesting that exposure to mycobacteria may influence the immune response to allergens.

Evidence for metabolic endotoxemia in obese and diabetic Gambian women.

Objective:Emerging evidence from animal models suggests that translocation of bacterial debris across a leaky gut may trigger low-grade inflammation, which in turn drives insulin resistance. The current study set out to investigate this phenomenon, termed ‘metabolic endotoxemia’, in Gambian women.Methods:In a cross-sectional study, we recruited 93 age-matched middle-aged urban Gambian women into three groups: lean (body mass index (BMI): 18.5–22.9u2009kgu2009m−2), obese non-diabetic (BMI: ⩾30.0u2009kgu2009m−2) and obese diabetic (BMI: ⩾30.0u2009kgu2009m−2 and attending a diabetic clinic). We measured serum bacterial lipopolysaccharide (LPS) and endotoxin-core IgM and IgG antibodies (EndoCAb) as measures of endotoxin exposure and interleukin-6 (IL-6) as a marker of inflammation.Results:Inflammation (IL-6) was independently and positively associated with both obesity and diabetes (F=12.7, P<0.001). LPS levels were highest in the obese-diabetic group compared with the other two groups (F=4.4, P<0.02). IgM EndoCAb (but not total IgM) was highly significantly reduced in the obese (55% of lean value) and obese diabetic women (30% of lean; F=21.7, P<0.0001 for trend) compared with lean women.Conclusion:These data support the hypothesis that gut-derived inflammatory products are associated with obesity and diabetes. Confirmation of these findings and elucidation of the role of the microbiota, gut damage and the pathways for translocation of bacterial debris, could open new avenues for prevention and treatment of type 2 diabetes.

Geographical variation in prevalence of hypertension within The Gambia.

Hypertension has become an important public health problem for sub-Sahara Africa. In a previous nationwide study, we observed a high degree of geographical variation in the prevalence of diastolic hypertension. Geographical variation provides essential background information for the development of community randomised trials could suggest aetiological mechanisms, inform control strategies and prompt further research questions. We designed a follow-up study from the nine high-prevalence communities, and from 18 communities where hypertension was found least prevalent (controls). In each community, 50 households were randomly selected. In each household, an (unrelated) man and woman were enrolled. The risk for hypertension (blood pressure ⩾160/95 mmu2009Hg) was higher in the high prevalence communities compared to the control villages (adjusted OR = 1.7, 95% CI 1.3–2.2). The observed coefficient of variation in hypertension prevalence, k, was 0.30. Thus we confirmed significant geographical variation in prevalence of hypertension over time, which has implications for planning of interventions.