P. Dorfman

Exposure to multiple environmental agents and their effect

Introduction: All children are exposed to multiple physical, chemical and biological challanges that can result in adverse health effects before and after birth. In this context, the danger of multiple exposures cannot be assessed from a single‐chemical approach as used in classical toxicology. Aim: To open up a ‘negotiation space’ for the problem of multiple exposure to environmental stressors, defined as any physical, chemical or biological entity that can induce an adverse response. In this context, two further questions obtain: to what extent can synergistic risks be assessed, and how far could potential adverse effects be prevented by enhanced regulation?Methods: A discussion of two general approaches is taken: 1 ) the investigation of mixtures such as smoking or air pollution without specifying the individual agents, and 2 ) the investigation of individual substances with a focus on possible interactions in the context of dose to receptor. Results: Although mixtures of compounds can have effects, it may not be possible to ascribe causation to a single compound. Furthermore, cumulative low‐dose insult can, in some circumstances, be more toxic than a single high‐dose exposure, e.g. endocrine disruptive effects of a combination of PCBs and dioxins which disrupt the thyroid hormone status; this tends to contradict elements of classical toxicology,. These cumulative insults may further combine with heavy metals and can disrupt the heme synthesis. It is possible that groups of pollutants could be used to test their cumulative capacity to multiple stress‐susceptible receptor targets as is done in smoking and air pollution. This methodology could be used for further groups of potential pollutants, for example those associated with cleaning products, or cosmetics. Testing individual substances with a focus on interactions means that not only chemicals but also concurrent diseases should be taken into account. We suggest that the enhanced regulation of potential multiple stressors falls into two discrete categories. The first comprises a more precautionary approach (as demonstrated by the banning of chemicals such as some brominated flame retardants in Europe). The second comprises a more ‘permissive’ liberal approach involving the initial study of an individual compound, and subsequent interrogation of that compound in combination with another (as demonstrated by lowering the carcinogenicity of aflatoxin by vaccination against hepatitis B).

Enhancing consultation practices on Air Quality Management in local authorities

Schedule 11 of the Environment Act 1995 underpins the requirement for consultation on air quality issues. The ongoing air quality review and assessment process represents one of the largest locally based science policy and communication initiatives ever undertaken in the UK. This paper outlines the practice of consultation and communication for Air Quality Management (AQM) and reviews the interaction between Environmental Health professionals, as the leading actor in the AQM process and other stakeholders involved in air quality consultation, including the public. Results are presented from a widespread questionnaire survey of English local authorities. Data indicate that the majority of air quality consultation has been carried out with statutory consultees (by sending the review and assessment reports) and the public (via websites and leaflets) in the form of information dissemination.

Exploring the context of consultation: the case of local air quality management

The Environment Act of 1995 (Part IV) requires local authorities to review and assess air quality in their area of jurisdiction and to determine locations where concentrations of defined pollutants exceed. The ongoing review and assessment process is one of the largest locally based science policy and science consultation initiatives undertaken in the UK. Combining a questionnaire-based survey with in depth case studies has allowed an exploration of the process and the development of better practice guidance for such consultation initiatives. The research suggests that while there are no simple solutions to the dilemma of how best to engage the public in such consultations, there are steps that can be taken to improve consultation. Key factors that facilitate local community participation in such processes include a well-informed and adequately resourced local community and an explicit connection between participatory and decision-making processes. Although the research focused on local air quality management as a case study of consultation mechanisms, the outcomes will be relevant to other locally based environmental management issues.

Barriers and opportunities to successful local air quality management consultation in England

England now has some 10 years experience of the Local Air Quality Management (LAQM) process where local authorities are required to consult on their air quality findings with stakeholders and the public. The statutory basis for consultation is provided by the Environment Act 1995, part IV; the Act and subsequence Policy Guidance identify a range of statutory and non statutory consultees, including the public where it is appropriate that their views are taken into account in the local authority’s decisions about LAQM. This paper will present the outcomes of a 2 year Economic and Social Research Council funded programme addressing how local authorities in England have discharged their air quality duties and responsibilities. Evidence from a questionnaire survey and case studies is presented. Data suggest that although local authorities genuinely attempt to engage with all stakeholders, current consultation processes are not working as well as they could. This suggests a re-think on the form and function of LAQM consultation processes is required. Barriers for and opportunities to effective consultation will be considered and the paper will conclude with a set of parameters that define an integrated LAQM consultation process.

A preliminary review of local air quality management consultation practices in England

Stakeholder participation in environmental risk decision-making processes is on the increase in the UK and EU member states. An example of this enhanced consultation requirement concerns the statutory requirement involving local authority declaration of Air Quality Management Areas (AQMAs). This local air quality management (LAQM) consultation process represents one of the largest locally based environmental risk consultation exercises carried out in the UK. This paper rehearses and provides evidence from an intensive 2-year ESRC research project that has investigated the nature, scope and effectiveness of LAQM consultation approaches. In order to interrogate this environmental risk distribution, all 353 local authorities in England were surveyed, and 11 in-depth case studies were identified and executed. Our findings suggest that there are no simple solutions to the consultation dilemma. Local authorities are faced with a series of substantive challenges in contacting, engaging with, and incorporating the views of their diverse constituencies within the LAQM decision-making process. However, in order to assist local authorities in this process we have evolved a range of emergent ‘better practice’ parameters that build upon and operationalise our research findings.

Consultation for local air quality management in the UK: opportunities for and barriers to successful science communication

Dialogue with the public is no longer an optional add-on to science policy-making. In line with this more inclusive approach, local authorities in Great Britain have, for the first time, been advised to consult with relevant stakeholders as part of the Air Quality Management process (Schedule 11, Environment Act, 1995). This represents one of, if not the, largest locally based science communication exercises ever undertaken in GB. Local Air Quality Management (LAQM) assesses at a local level whether health-based air quality objectives are likely to be exceeded. Where objectives are not going to be met, and members of the public are exposed to elevated concentrations of pollutants, local authorities are required to declare Air Quality Management Areas and put in place Air Quality Action Plans to improve local air quality. Consultation on air quality issues ranges from information dissemination (websites, leaflets to local residents etc) to fully inclusive two-way consultation exercises (focus groups, citizens jury’s etc.). This paper provides some early considerations from an ESRC funded research project (RES-151-25-0044). The research ultimately aims to provide local authorities with comprehensive guidance on effective consultation mechanisms at different stages of the LAQM process. It is likely that this will be delivered in partnership with organisations and government already working with local authorities in the air quality management field. Although the project uses LAQM as a case study of consultation mechanisms, the outcomes will be relevant to other locally based environmental management regimes.