P. Esbrit

Transient Exposure to PTHrP (107-139) Exerts Anabolic Effects through Vascular Endothelial Growth Factor Receptor 2 in Human Osteoblastic Cells In Vitro

Intermittent administration of the N-terminal fragment of parathyroid hormone (PTH) and PTH-related protein (PTHrP) induces bone anabolic effects. However, the effects of the C-terminal domain of PTHrP on bone turnover remain controversial. We examined the putative mechanisms whereby this PTHrP domain can affect osteoblastic differentiation, using human osteosarcoma MG-63 cells and osteoblastic cells from human trabecular bone. Intermittent exposure to PTHrP (107-139), within 10-100 nM, for only ≤24 hours during cell growth stimulated alkaline phosphatase (ALP) and Runt homology domain protein (Runx2) activities as well as osteocalcin (OC) and osteoprotegerin (OPG) expression but inhibited receptor activator of nuclear factor κB (NF-κB) ligand. Continuous exposure to this PTHrP peptide reversed these effects. The stimulatory effects of transient treatment with PTHrP (107-139) on OC mRNA and/or OPG protein expression were unaffected by a neutralizing anti-insulin-like growth factor I antibody or [Asn10, Leu11, d-Trp12]PTHrP (7-34) in these cells. On the other hand, the former antibody and the latter PTHrP antagonist abrogated the PTHrP (1-36)-induced increase in these osteoblastic products. Transient exposure to PTHrP (107-139), in contrast to PTHrP (1-36), stimulated vascular endothelial growth factor receptor 2 (VEGFR2) mRNA levels in these cells. Moreover, induction of ALP activity as well as OC and OPG expression by PTHrP (107-139) was blunted by SU5614, a permeable tyrosine kinase inhibitor of VEGFR2. Protein kinase C (PKC) and extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK) inhibitors abolished the PTHrP (107-139)-stimulated VEGFR2 and OPG mRNA levels in these cells. These results indicate that intermittent exposure to PTHrP (107-139) exerts potential anabolic effects through the PKC/ERK pathway and, subsequently, VEGFR2 upregulation in vitro in human osteoblastic cells.

Alterations of the Wnt/β-catenin pathway and its target genes for the N- and C-terminal domains of parathyroid hormone-related protein in bone from diabetic mice

Type 1 diabetes mellitus (T1D) is associated with bone loss. Given that the Wnt/β‐catenin pathway is a major regulator of bone accrual, we assessed this pathway in mice with streptozotozin‐induced T1D. In diabetic mouse long bones, we found alterations favouring the suppression of this pathway by using PCR arrays and β‐catenin immunostaining. Downregulation of sclerostin, an inhibitor of this pathway, also occurred, and related to increased osteocyte apoptosis. Our data show that both N‐ and C‐terminal parathyroid hormone‐related peptide fragments might exert osteogenic effects in this setting by targeting several genes of this pathway and increasing β‐catenin in osteoblastic cells.

Role of the Parathyroid Hormone Type 1 Receptor (PTH1R) as a Mechanosensor in Osteocyte Survival

Osteocytes have a major role in the control of bone remodeling. Mechanical stimulation decreases osteocyte apoptosis and promotes bone accrual, whereas skeletal unloading is deleterious in both respects. PTH1R ablation or overexpression in osteocytes in mice produces trabecular bone loss or increases bone mass, respectively. The latter effect was related to a decreased osteocyte apoptosis. Here, the putative role of PTH1R activation in osteocyte protection conferred by mechanical stimulation was assessed. Osteocytic MLO‐Y4 cells were subjected to mechanical stimuli represented by hypotonic shock (216 mOsm/kg) or pulsatile fluid flow (8u2009Hz, 10 dynes/cm2) for a short pulse (10u2009min), with or without PTH1R antagonists or after transfection with specific PTHrP or PTH1R siRNA. These mechanical stimuli prevented cell death induced within 6u2009hours by etoposide (50u2009μM), related to PTHrP overexpression; and this effect was abolished by the calcium antagonist verapamil (1u2009μM), a phospholipase C (PLC) inhibitor (U73122; 10u2009μM), and a PKA activation inhibitor, Rp‐cAMPS (25u2009μM), in these cells. Each mechanical stimulus also rapidly induced β‐catenin stabilization and nuclear ERK translocation, which were inhibited by the PTH1R antagonist PTHrP(7–34) (1u2009μM), or PTH1R siRNA, and mimicked by PTHrP(1–36) (100 nM). Mechanical stretching by hypotonic shock did not affect cAMP production but rapidly (<1u2009min) stimulated Cai2+ transients in PTH1R‐overexpressing HEK‐293 cells and in MLO‐Y4 cells, in which calcium signaling was unaffected by the presence of a PTHrP antiserum or PTHrP siRNA but inhibited by knocking down PTH1R. These novel findings indicate that PTH1R is an important component of mechanical signal transduction in osteocytic MLO‐Y4 cells, and that PTH1R activation by PTHrP‐independent and dependent mechanisms has a relevant role in the prosurvival action of mechanical stimulus in these cells.

The Interleukin-6/Soluble Interleukin-6 Receptor System Induces Parathyroid Hormone–Related Protein in Human Osteoblastic Cells

In the present in vitro study, we tested the hypothesis that parathyroid hormone-related protein (PTHrP) might be a mediator of interleukin-6 (IL-6) and its soluble receptor (IL-6sR) in osteoblasts. We found that IL-6, within 1–20xa0ng/mL, added together with IL-6sR (100xa0ng/mL), rapidly (1 hour) increased PTHrP mRNA in human osteoblastic osteosarcoma MG-63 cells and human osteoblastic (hOB) cells from trabecular bone. PD098059, a mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) kinase inhibitor, at 10xa0μM, and two inhibitors of protein prenylation and thus Ras activation, simvastatin (1xa0μM) and a farnesyltransferase (FTase) inhibitor (100 nM), but not the phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase inhibitor wortmannin, blocked the IL-6/IL-6sR-induced PTHrP expression in these cells. In addition, PD098059 as well as simvastatin and the FTase inhibitor abolished alkaline phosphatase activity and/or osteocalcin mRNA induction by the IL-6/IL-6sR in these cells. Our results support the role of the Ras/MAPK pathway as a major mechanism in the modulation of both PTHrP expression and differentiation in human osteoblasts.

Parathyroid Hormone-Related Protein Analogs as Osteoporosis Therapies

The only bone anabolic agent currently available for osteoporosis treatment is parathyroid hormone (PTH)—either its N-terminal 1–34 fragment or the whole molecule of 1–84 aminoacids—whose intermittent administration stimulates new bone formation by targeting osteoblastogenesis and osteoblast survival. PTH-related protein (PTHrP) is an abundant factor in bone which shows N-terminal homology with PTH and thus exhibits high affinity for the same PTH type 1 receptor in osteoblasts. Therefore, it is not surprising that intermittently administered N-terminal PTHrP peptides induce bone anabolism in animals and humans. Furthermore, the C-terminal region of PTHrP also elicits osteogenic features in vitro in osteoblastic cells and in various animal models of osteoporosis. In this review, we discuss the current concepts about the cellular and molecular mechanisms whereby PTHrP may induce anabolic actions in bone. Pre-clinical studies and clinical data using N-terminal PTHrP analogs are also summarized, pointing to PTHrP as a promising alternative to current bone anabolic therapies.

Phytoestrogen modulation of bone-related cytokines and its impact on cell viability in human prostate cancer cells

AIMSnProstate cancer (PCa) has a high propensity to metastasize to the bone. PCa cells produce several bone-related factors, namely parathyroid hormone related protein (PTHrP), its PTH type 1 receptor (PTH1R), osteoprotegerin (OPG), and receptor activator of NF-kappa B ligand (RANKL). The effects of these factors might explain, at least in part, the ability of PCa cells to grow in and interact with bone.nnnMAIN METHODSnWe first analyzed the expression of the aforementioned factors (by western blot and flow cytometry), and their modulation by the phytoestrogens genistein and daidzein (as potential anti-tumoral agents), in human PCa cells in vitro. We also assessed the impact of these osteomimetic factors on PCa cell viability (by propidium iodide staining and flow cytometry, and trypan blue staining).nnnKEY FINDINGSnGenistein and daidzein, at nM range, increased both the PTHrP/PTH1R system and the OPG/RANKL protein ratio, while genistein and, to a lesser extent, daidzein, at >microM doses, inhibited cell viability in PCa cells. Both N- and C-terminal domains of PTHrP inhibited genistein-induced cell death by modulating transcription factor Runx-2 and the Bcl-2/Bax protein ratio in PCa cells.nnnSIGNIFICANCEnOur findings indicate that high doses of genistein and daidzein cause PCa cell death. On the other hand, low doses of these phytoestrogens induce some osteomimetic features in PCa cells with putative impact on PCa development.

Unexpected Bone Formation Produced by RANKL Blockade.

Denosumab (Dmab) is a humanized monoclonal antibody that blocks RANKL (receptor activator for nuclear factor κB ligand), thereby exerting a potent bone antiresorptive action. Dmab treatment leads to a dramatic and sustained increase in bone mass through mechanisms that are currently under debate. It is also a matter of controversy whether this potent action of Dmab could lead to intrabone dystrophic mineralization. Recent research has uncovered a possible anabolic role of Dmab involving RANKL-dependent reverse signaling in osteoblasts, and that bone marrow adipocytes can modulate osteoclastogenesis through the production of RANKL. We comment here on potential pathways which might account for the anabolic action of Dmab. The impact of this proposed mechanism needs to be addressed in further research.

Parathyroid hormone-related protein exhibits antioxidant features in osteoblastic cells through its N-terminal and osteostatin domains

Objectives Oxidative stress plays a major role in the onset and progression of involutional osteoporosis. However, classical antioxidants fail to restore osteoblast function. Interestingly, the bone anabolism of parathyroid hormone (PTH) has been shown to be associated with its ability to counteract oxidative stress in osteoblasts. The PTH counterpart in bone, which is the PTH-related protein (PTHrP), displays osteogenic actions through both its N-terminal PTH-like region and the C-terminal domain. Methods We examined and compared the antioxidant capacity of PTHrP (1-37) with the C-terminal PTHrP domain comprising the 107-111 epitope (osteostatin) in both murine osteoblastic MC3T3-E1 cells and primary human osteoblastic cells. Results We showed that both N- and C-terminal PTHrP peptides at 100 nM decreased reactive oxygen species production and forkhead box protein O activation following hydrogen peroxide (H2O2)-induced oxidation, which was related to decreased lipid oxidative damage and caspase-3 activation in these cells. This was associated with their ability to restore the deleterious effects of H2O2 on cell growth and alkaline phosphatase activity, as well as on the expression of various osteoblast differentiation genes. The addition of Rp-cyclic 3′,5′-hydrogen phosphorothioate adenosine triethylammonium salt (a cyclic 3,5-adenosine monophosphate antagonist) and calphostin C (a protein kinase C inhibitor), or a PTH type 1 receptor antagonist, abrogated the effects of N-terminal PTHrP, whereas protein phosphatase 1 (an Src kinase activity inhibitor), SU1498 (a vascular endothelial growth factor receptor 2 inhibitor), or an anti osteostatin antiserum, inhibited the effects of C-terminal PTHrP. Conclusion These findings indicate that the antioxidant properties of PTHrP act through its N- and C-terminal domains and provide novel insights into the osteogenic action of PTHrP. Cite this article: S. Portal-Núñez, J. A. Ardura, D. Lozano, I. Martínez de Toda, M. De la Fuente, G. Herrero-Beaumont, R. Largo, P. Esbrit. Parathyroid hormone-related protein exhibits antioxidant features in osteoblastic cells through its N-terminal and osteostatin domains. Bone Joint Res 2018;7:58–68. DOI: 10.1302/2046-3758.71.BJR-2016-0242.R2.

El receptor 2 de VEGF (VEGFR2) y el receptor 1 de la PTH (PTH1R) actúan como mediadores de la respuesta anti-apoptótica al estímulo mecánico en las células osteocíticas MLO-Y4

espanolLa estimulacion mecanica juega un papel fundamental en el mantenimiento de la masa osea. Dicha estimulacion previene la apoptosis de los osteocitos por un mecanismo que implica la acumulacion de β-catenina y la translocacion nuclear de quinasas reguladas por senales extracelulares (ERK). El factor de crecimiento del endotelio vascular (VEGF) y la proteina relacionada con la parathormona (PTHrP) modulan la formacion osea, aunque su interaccion con los osteocitos es desconocida. En el presente estudio hemos evaluado el posible papel del receptor 2 del VEGF (VEGFR2) y del receptor tipo 1 de PTH (PTH1R) en la respuesta antiapoptotica a la estimulacion mecanica en celulas osteociticas MLO-Y4. Las celulas se sometieron a estres mecanico por flujo laminar de fluido (10 min, 10 dinas/cm ) o choque hipotonico (240 mOsm, 1h), o estimuladas con VEGF 165 2 o PTHrP (1-36). Ademas, comparamos los efectos de sobre-expresar VEGFR2 y el estimulo mecanico en estas celulas. La estimulacion mecanica, el VEGF o la PTHrP (1-36), de manera similar, estimularon la viabilidad celular y la estabilizacion de β-catenina, relacionada con su localizacion en la membrana. Ademas, la estimulacion mecanica aumento la presencia del PTH1R en la membrana. La inhibicion del VEGFR2 asi como el antagonista PTHrP (7-34) disminuyeron estos efectos. Por otro lado, la sobre-expresion del VEGFR2 en las celulas MLO-Y4 mimetizo el efecto del estimulo mecanico sobre la β-catenina y la viabilidad celular. Estos hallazgos apoyan un papel funcional de ambos sistemas, VEGF/VEGFR2 y PTHrP/PTH1R, en la respuesta temprana a la estimulacion mecanica para promover la viabilidad osteocitica. EnglishMechanical stimulation plays a crucial role in bone mineral maintenance. This stimulation prevents osteocyte apoptosis by a mechanism that involves β-catenin accumulation and nuclear translocation of extracellular-signal-regulated kinases (ERKs). The vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) and parathyroid hormone-related protein (PTHrP) modulate bone formation, although their interaction with osteocytes is unknown. In this paper we have considered the possible role of VEGF (VEGFR2) 2 receptor and PTH (PTH1R) type 1 receptor in the anti-apoptotic response to mechanical stimulation of MLO-Y4 osteocyte-like cells. The cells were subjected to mechanical stress by laminar fluid flow (10 min, 10 dinas/cm ) or hypotonic shock (240 mOsm, 1h), or stimulated with VEGF 165 2 or PTHrP (1-36). We also compared the effects of overexpressed VEGFR2 and mechanical stimulation of these cells. Mechanical stimulation, VEGF or PTHrP (1-36) stimulated cellular viability and β-catenin stabilization in a similar manner, associated with its localization in the membrane. Mechanical stimulation increased PTH1R presence in the membrane. VEGFR2 inhibition as well as the PTHrP (7-34) antagonist reduced these effects. On the other hand, VEGFR2 overexpression in MLO-Y4 cells mimicked the mechanical stimulation effect on β-catenin and cellular viability. Our findings support a functional role for both systems, VEGF/VEGFR2 and PTHrP/PTH1R, in the early response to mechanical stimulation in promoting osteocyte-like viability.

Comparación de las acciones osteogénicas de la proteína relacionada con la parathormona (PTHrP) en modelos de ratón diabético y con déficit del factor de crecimiento similar a la insulina tipo I (IGF-I)

Work scholarship from the SEIOMM to attend the 35 Congress of the ASBMR (Baltimore, 2013). Summary Diabetes mellitus (DM) is a metabolic pathology characterised by chronic hyperglycemia due to a deficit in the production and/or action of insulin. DM, above all type I, is commonly associated with osteopenia/osteoporosis and with an increased risk of fractures. Insulin-like growth factor-I (IGF-I), a factor abundant in the bone matrix which plays a significant role in the development and maintenance of bone mass, diminishes with DM. Parathyroid hormone-related protein (PTHrP), a modulator of growth and osteoblast function, acts on osteoprogenitors, promoting osteoblast differentiation and bone regeneration. Its expression is reduced in the presence of DM. In this work we have evaluated and compared the osteogenic actions of PTHrP in mouse models with type 1 DM and IGF-I deficiency. Diabetic mice by injection of streptozotocin had a reduction in bone mass in the long bones associated with an increase in oxidised proteins and a reduction in the expression of genes related to the Wnt pathway and of β-catenin protein, as well as alterations in vertebral trabecular bone. In the mouse model with IGF-I deficit our results indicate the presence of osteopenia both in the femur (associated with an inhibition of the Wnt pathway) and the spine (L1-L5). Our findings demonstrate that the administration of PTHrP, predominantly through its N-terminal domain, modulates the canonical Wnt pathway in relation to its osteogenic actions in a diabetic situation and also, in part, in the absence of IGF-I.