P. J. Goddard

Effect of space allowance during transport on the behavioural and physiological responses of lambs during and after transport

There is limited information on the behavioural and physiological responses of sheep to the components of road transport. Behavioural observations and physiological measurements of ‘stress’, injury and dehydration were made on weaned lambs (35 kg) before, during and after either stationary confinement or transport for 22 h at four space allowances (0·22, 0·27, 0·31 and 0·41 m2 per sheep). Two groups were not loaded (a control group with access to food and water, and a group with no food and no water for 12 h). During the confinement and transport period, the proportion of scans spent lying and the proportion of scans spent ruminating was significantly less than that before treatment (P 0·05). Under the conditions of this study, sheep with a live weight of 35 kg can be transported for 12 h at space allowances of between 0·22 and 0·41 m2 per sheep without showing major physiological changes indicative of injury and dehydration. However, the sheep appeared to be hungry after 12 h without food and showed a cortisol and heart rate response to transport, indicating that some aspect of transport was acting as a stressor. A space allowance of 0·22 m2 per sheep cannot be recommended for 35 kg sheep as there is insufficient space for most of the sheep to lie down during transport. Whereas a space allowance of at least 0·27 m2 per sheep does allow most sheep sufficient space to lie down.

The behavioural, endocrine and immune responses of sheep to isolation

Two groups of five sheep (7 months of age) were moved and isolated in pens which did not allow visual and tactile contact with other sheep for 24 h. They were then moved back to their original pens where visual and tactile contact was possible. After 24 h the procedure was repeated seven times for one group (group 8-1) and thirteen times for the other group (group 14-1). One group (control) of five sheep remained in pens where visual and tactile contact was possible. When isolated the lambs spent more time standing still in an alert posture, less time eating and resting, and vocalized more than control lambs. The heart rate of the lambs increased when they were moved between pens and during isolation. The plasma concentration of cortisol was significantly increased after 1·5 h and 3 h of isolation. The plasma concentration of prolactin was increased after 1·5 h of isolation. After 3 h of isolation the number of neutrophils in the blood was increased and the numbers of T-lymphocytes (CD2), T-helper-lymphocytes (CD4) and yd-lymphocytes (T19) were decreased. After 24 h of isolation the lymphocyte blastogenic response to Con A was lower and the numbers of T-lymphocytes and T-helper-lymphocytes were still less than those in control lambs. Although there were still behavioural changes when the lambs were isolated for the seventh time, no cortisol, prolactin and leucocyte changes were found. These results suggest that stressors similar to isolation, which can occur during normal management practice, may elicit short-term leucocyte changes in lambs.

The behavioural, endocrine and leucocyte response of ewes to repeated removal of lambs before the age of natural weaning

Abstract Changes in the blood leucocyte population in response to psychological stressors could increase susceptibility to disease and be useful in the assessment of animal welfare. This paper examines the effect of repeated lamb removal on the blood leucocyte population of ewes and quantifies the behavioural and endocrine responses to the stressor. Twelve ewes which had given birth to twins, were placed in separate pens with their lambs. After 13 days, the lambs (14–19 days old) from one group of six ewes (treatment group) were removed from the pens and placed in a pen 11 m from the nearest ewe. After 3 h the lambs were moved back to their dam. The lambs then remained with their dam for 3 h before being removed for a second period of 3 h. This procedure was repeated for 23 days. A control group of six ewes remained with their lambs continuously for the 24-day experimental period. The removal of lambs produced behavioural changes in the ewes. These included: orientation towards the lamb, vocalization, raised head, erect ears, and decreased lying and sleeping behaviours. Although these changes were present over the 24-day experimental period, there were signs of habituation after 3 days of the treatment. The endocrine responses to lamb removal were less marked. Some ewes showed a plasma cortisol and β-endorphin response on Day 1 of lamb removal, but the mean responses were not statistically different from the control group. There was no obvious plasma prolactin response to the treatment. On Day 10 of lamb removal, the blood concentration of neutrophils in the treatment ewes had increased and the proportion of CD2 lymphocytes and T19 lymphocytes had decreased compared with that of control ewes. There were no significant differences between the treatment and control ewes in either the delayed type hypersensitivity skin responses to Dinitroflurobenzene or the humoral antibody responses to ovalbumin. These results indicate that ewes can show behavioural responses to a stressor, such as repeated lamb removal. However, this stressor had no significant effect on the endocrine and immune measurements studied.

The behavioural, physiological and immunological responses of lambs from two rearing systems and two genotypes to exposure to humans

The behavioural, physiological and immunological responses of lambs from two rearing systems and two genotypes to exposure to humans was assessed during and immediately after testing in an open-field arena. Ninety-six lambs of two genotypes (Scottish Blackface: BF and Texelx(Blue-faced LeicesterxScottish Blackface): T) were used. From birth to weaning one of two management regimes was applied: extensive (E), whereby animals were handled as little as possible or semi-intensive (I), in which lambs experienced a greater level of human exposure. Eight lambs from each of the four treatment groups received an antigenic challenge (Mycobacterium a. paratuberculosis) at 9 weeks of age to allow subsequent testing of immunological reactivity. At 1 and 3 weeks after weaning and 1 year later, lambs were tested in groups of four in a 4.5x4.5 m indoor arena, marked with gridlines at 0.75 m intervals. There were a number of occasions where testing revealed significant effects of genotype, management or their interaction, but in an approximately equal number of instances no significant effects of either genotype or management were observed. Genotype significantly influenced the number of squares occupied in the test arena over a 10-min period before the human entered (100.4 vs. 110.5; sed 2.70 for BF and T lambs, respectively, p<0.001). In relation to the number of new squares entered, there was a genotypexmanagement interaction: BFE lambs entered fewer squares than TE lambs but following semi-intensive management (I) BF lambs entered more squares than T lambs (p<0.05). When a human entered the arena after this 10-min period, while there was a gradual reduction in the number of animals which had not moved over the next 5 min, 66 animals had not moved within the allocated time. Also during this period, BF lambs stood facing the human for significantly longer than T lambs (p<0.05). At the time of arena testing, 12 lambs from each treatment group were fitted with heart-rate monitoring equipment. There were significant differences in heart rate in relation to period of testing, i.e. before (107.9) or after (112.3) the point at which the human entered the arena or when the lambs were walking in the presence of a moving human (126.3 b.p.m.; sed 2.15, p<0.001). When lambs were alone in the test arena, BF lambs had higher heart rates than T lambs (p<0.05). The heart rate of E lambs increased more than that of I lambs when the human entered the pen (9.4 vs. 0.3 b.p.m.; sed 3.95, respectively; p=0.05). Immediately following completion of the behavioural tests, blood samples were collected from subsets of lambs. Plasma cortisol concentrations of BF lambs were greater than those of T lambs (82.0 vs. 53.5 nmol/l; sed 10.18, p<0.01) but there was no effect of management. Blood samples collected from the lambs challenged with a novel antigen prior to weaning showed a genotype but not a management effect on both antibody and cell mediated immune responses, although there was a genotypexmanagement interaction. However, it should also be noted that there were no significant effects of either genotype or management on a number of the indices recorded: latency of lambs to move from the initial entry position in the absence or subsequent presence of a human; length of time one individual was separated from the other three; distance moved in a raceway before stopping; plasma beta-endorphin concentrations; heart rate in the presence of a human. Overall, these results suggest that although differences in responsiveness associated with specific genotypes of sheep can be detected in a test situation, the early life management regime may also have an effect. The results of this study caution against drawing conclusions between studies where different genotypes are employed.

Use of long-acting neuroleptics to reduce the stress response to management practices in red deer

Abstract Three groups of six adult red deer hinds were used to determine whether long-acting neuroleptic (LAN) tranquillisers were able to modify the behavioural and physiological responses of the deer to a range of routine management stressors: such drugs may eventually prove useful in capture procedures for wild animals. While the stressors increased moving activity and decreased inactive lying and inter-animal distances, these changes were reduced in LAN-treated animals. Blood samples, collected remotely using automatic equipment, showed that following application of the stressors there was a distinct rise in plasma cortisol concentrations which returned to pre-treatment levels more rapidly in LAN-treated animals. However, there was no effect of LAN treatment on plasma concentrations of creatine phosphokinase (CPK), aspartate aminotransferase (AST), total protein or testosterone. Overall, LAN-treated animals had higher concentrations of plasma thyroxine. Heart rate increased in response to the stressors and while the LAN-treated deer showed a greater increase, as with plasma cortisol concentrations, heart rate returned to baseline more rapidly in these animals. We conclude that LANs may have a role to play in wild deer capture and habituation to farming conditions through a reduction in fear and anxiety, but that further work is required to determine an optimal strategy.

Effect of lairage during 24 h of transport on the behavioural and physiological responses of sheep

The effects on the behavioural and physiological responses of sheep of providing rest, food and water (lairage) during 24 h of either road transport or stationary confinement (treatment) were investigated. Twenty-four hours of continuous treatment was compared with 12 h of treatment followed by either 12 h of lairage, 3 h of lairage or 3 h of food and water on the vehicle, followed by a second 12 h of treatment. A further group of sheep was kept as controls. The plasma cortisol concentration was increased at the start of the journey and after 24 h of continuous transport it was still greater than that in controls ( P There was evidence to suggest that a period of lairage during a 24-h journey can be beneficial in providing sheep with an opportunity to eat, drink and avoid the stressors associated with transport. However, providing hay and water on the vehicle during a 3-h stationary period as compared with unloading into a lairage cannot be recommended. Although sheep readily ate hay on the vehicle, they did not drink sufficient water. This resulted in dehydration and a greater plasma cortisol concentration during the remainder of the journey than in those that had been lairaged for 12 h and a greater water intake post transport than in those given either no lairage or 12 h of lairage.

The behavioural and physiological reactions of farmed red deer to transport: effects of sex, group size, space allowance and vehicular motion

Sixty yearling red deer (30 males, 30 females), comprising eight single-sex groups of either 5 or 10 animals, were loaded onto a livestock transporter for 3 h, during which they were either transported or remained stationary, at one of two space allowances (males: 0.5 m2 or 1 m2/deer, females: 0.4 m2 or 0.8 m2/deer). One group was tested each day, and each group was subjected to each transport×space allowance combination. Compared with pretreatment values, deer spent more time standing in the transporter, with the greatest change occurring when group size was 10. Deer displayed more alert behaviour in the transporter (P<0.001), and less time was spent ruminating (P<0.001). During transportation, there tended to be more losses of balance at the higher space allowances. The preferred orientations inside the transporter were either parallel to or perpendicular to the direction of travel. Diagonal orientations were less common. Heart rates increased (P<0.001) during initial stages in the transporter, but decreased during the course of treatment periods. Plasma creatine kinase activity was higher immediately after treatment periods than before (P<0.001), indicating physical exertion or muscle damage. Compared with pretreatment values, plasma cortisol concentration increased more due to transportation than stationary confinement (30.04 vs. 8.53 nmol/l, P<0.01), suggesting vehicular motion may have been stressful. Overall, there were few differences between the various treatment combinations (group size, sex, space allowance, stationary/transport) in the behavioural and physiological responses of the deer, and it is concluded that the transport conditions used in this study had little detrimental effect on the welfare of deer.

Interactions between profit and welfare on extensive sheep farms

Extensive sheep farming systems make an important contribution to socio-economic well-being and the ‘ecosystem services’ that flow from large areas of the UK and elsewhere. They are therefore subject to much policy intervention. However, the animal welfare implications of such interventions and their economic drivers are rarely considered. Under Defra project AW1024 (a further study to assess the interaction between economics, husbandry and animal welfare in large, extensively managed sheep flocks) we therefore assessed the interaction between profit and animal welfare on extensive sheep farms. A detailed inventory of resources, resource deployment and technical performance was constructed for 20 commercial extensive sheep farms in Great Britain (equal numbers from the Scottish Highlands, Cumbria, Peak District and mid-Wales). Farms were drawn from focus groups in these regions where participative research with farmers added further information. These data were summarised and presented to a panel of 12 experts for welfare assessment. We used two welfare assessment methods one drawn from animal welfare science (‘needs’ based) the other from management science (Service Quality Modelling). The methods gave complementary results. The inventory data were also used to build a linear programme (LP) model of sheep, labour and feed-resource management monthby-month on each farm throughout the farming year. By setting the LP to adjust farm management to maximise gross margin under each farm’s circumstances we had an objective way to explore resource allocations, their constraints and welfare implications under alternative policy response scenarios. Regression of indicators of extensification (labour per ewe, in-bye land per ewe, hill area per ewe and lambs weaned per ewe) on overall welfare score explained 0.66 of variation with labour and lambs weaned per ewe both positive coefficients. Neither gross margin nor flock size were correlated with welfare score. Gross margin was also uncorrelated with these indicators of extensification with the exception of labour/ewe, which was negatively correlated with flock size and hence with gross margin. These results suggest animal welfare is best served by reduced extensification while greater profits are found in flock expansion with reduced labour input per ewe and no increase in other inputs or in productivity. Such potential conflicts should be considered as policy adjusts to meet the requirements for sustainable land use in the hills and uplands.

The behavioural and physiological responses of farmed red deer (Cervus elaphus) penned adjacent to other species

Abstract The experiment describes the implications of red deer ( Cervus elaphus ) being kept in pens in close proximity to other species as may occur during abattoir lairage. Twenty groups of five male yearling red deer were used to study behavioural and physiological responses over a 2-h period to one of five treatments: red deer penned adjacent to either an empty pen, unfamiliar red deer, cattle or pigs, and red deer which had previously been exposed to cattle (previously grazed adjacent to cattle) penned adjacent to cattle. Alert behaviour was significantly affected by treatment and groups of red deer penned next to cattle spent more time being alert than when next to unfamiliar red deer (0.68 vs. 0.32 scans; P P P P P −1 ) than in the other treatments (mean values between 33.0 and 53.1 nmol l −1 ; P P −1 ) but there was no treatment effect on LDH5 isoenzyme activity. It was concluded that there was some evidence to suggest that previous exposure to cattle made red deer exhibit more aversion to cattle when subsequently penned adjacent to them and that pigs appeared to be more aversive to the red deer than cattle.

The behavioural and physiological reactions of farmed red deer to transport: effects of road type and journey time

Four groups of six female yearling red deer were transported for either 2 or 6 h on either winding or straight roads. One group was tested each day, and each group was subjected to each road type×journey time combination in a random order. The deer lost live weight during transportation (P<0.05), although the rate of loss decreased with time. Compared with pre-transport observations, deer spent more time standing (P<0.001) and alert (P<0.001), and less time lying (P<0.001) and idling (P<0.001) during the first hour of transport. Time spent standing, moving and alert all decreased during the second hour of transport (P<0.05). Deer spent more time eating following 6-h journeys than after 2-h journeys (P<0.05). More losses of balance occurred on winding roads than on straight roads (P<0.001). The most commonly adopted orientations were either parallel to or perpendicular to the direction of travel. Diagonal orientations were less common (P<0.001). Packed cell volume was higher following 6-h journeys than after 2-h journeys (P<0.05), although other physiological measures of dehydration were not significantly affected by transport. A greater increase (compared with pre-transport values) in plasma creatine kinase activity (P<0.01) suggests that transport on winding roads may have been more physically demanding than on straight roads. Compared with pre-transport values, there were significant increases in the plasma concentrations of both cortisol (P<0.001) and non-esterified fatty acids (P<0.001), suggesting that transport was a stressful experience for deer. There was a significant increase in heart rate (compared with baseline values) during the initial stages of transport (P<0.001), followed by a subsequent reduction as journeys progressed. It is concluded that, although deer displayed at least partial adaptation to transportation as journey time increased and most of the variables measured returned to pre-transport levels shortly after unloading, transport was both physically and psychologically stressful for deer. Furthermore, deer may face a greater risk of injury if transported on winding roads.