P.R.J. Simons

New learning : three ways to learn in a new balance

Because people are learning all the time, we need criteria that can help us distinguish between better and worse kinds of learning. Organizations and societies as well as the psychology of learning ask for new learning outcomes, new learning processes and new forms of instruction. New learning outcomes as described by politicians and company representatives refer to outcomes that are durable, flexible, functional, meaningful, generalizable and application-oriented. Furthermore, new kinds of learning outcomes are generic outcomes like learning-, thinking-, collaboration and regulation-skills. In order to be able to reach the new learning outcomes mentioned above, new kinds of learning processes are needed: active, cumulative, constructive, goal-directed, diagnostic, reflective, discovery oriented, contextual, problem oriented, case based, social and intrinsically motivated kinds of learning. The first six of these have to do with action learning and the other six with experiential learning. Learning and instruction models for guided learning, action learning and experiential learning are described. It is concluded that a new kind of balance between guided learning, action learning and experiential learning is needed. For new instruction this means on the one hand more emphasis on action learning and experiential learning, on the other hand it means the organization of process-oriented instruction: a form of instruction with integrated attempts to teach the learning, thinking, collaboration and regulation skills.

Constructive learning : The role of the learner

In long term memory there are, we think, three kinds of memory representations: semantic, episodic and action representations (see Boekaerts, 1987). Semantic representations refer to concepts and principles with their defining characteristics (like a bird is an animal with feathers). Episodic representations are based on personal, situated and affective experiences with instances of the concepts and principles (like I love my little bird). Action representations refer to the things one can do with the semantic and episodic information: solving certain kinds of problems, using the knowledge (like birds can bring over messages).

The affordance of anchored discussion for the collaborative processing of academic texts

A system for “anchored discussion” is compared with a system for traditional forum discussion (Blackboard), and their collaborative and communicative affordances for the collaborative processing of academic texts are investigated. Results show that discussion in the system for anchored discussion is more directed at processing the meaning of texts than discussion in the traditional forum, which is more oriented towards the sharing of personal opinions and experiences. This difference in orientation produces a more constructive collaboration in the system for anchored discussion, versus a more debate-like collaboration in the forum discussion. Additionally, while messages in the traditional forum resemble usual discussion or email conversation and contain social and regulative comments, discussion in the system for anchored discussion is seen to be more efficient and “to-the-point.” We conclude that for collaborative text comprehension by undergraduate students, anchored discussion might be more suitable than traditional forum discussion. Finally, the observed differences can be explained by the stronger defined collaborative context in the system for anchored discussion, which focuses participants’ collaborative intentions and their frames of reference.

Transfer of learning: paradoxes for learners

Abstract There are three kinds of transfer: from prior knowledge to learning, from learning to new learning, and from learning to application. The central thesis of this chapter is that all three should start from the dilemmas or paradoxes learners may have when trying to reach transfer. Six of these are described. They are finding relevant prior knowledge; the paradox of tacit knowledge; using relevant prior knowledge while learning; recognizing relevant situations and conditions; the paradox of near transfer and far transfer; and the paradoxical “what” of transfer, including learning to learn. In order to optimize transfer one needs to help learners solve the problems they encounter and to find ways out of the various dilemmas and paradoxes. For the three kinds of transfer exemplary studies are described that illustrate the kinds of solutions developed and their effectiveness.

Patterns of interactive media use among contemporary youth

The intensive use of interactive media has led to assertions about the effect of these media on youth. Rather than following the assumption of a distinct Net generation, this study investigates diversity in interactive media use among youth. Results from a pilot study show that contemporary youth can be divided into clusters based on the use of interactive media. These results call for a better understanding of these clusters and the characteristics of their members. The research question for this paper was: Can patterns be found in the interactive media activities and opinions of young people? We answer this question by a survey among 2138 Dutch students aged 9 to 23 in education levels ranging from primary to higher professional education. Four categories of interactive media activities were discerned using confirmatory factor analysis: interacting, performing, interchanging, and authoring. Four clusters of interactive media users, namely Traditionalists, Gamers, Networkers, and Producers were identified using cluster analysis. Behind these straightforward categories, complex patterns of user activities and opinions can be found. The implication is that education should be cautious in applying these media as learning tools, because contemporary students show diversity in the kinds of interactive media they prefer using.

Methodological practices in on-the-job learning research

Abstract This paper compares and discusses aspects of methodological practices in on-the-job learning research. The focus is on contemporary research into on-the-job learning processes. Methodological practices refer to decisions of researchers in their research projects, to how they carry out the research, and how they report. This overview of methodological practices presents research instruments, on-the-job learning perspectives, paradigms, goals, researcher roles and quality and rigour considerations. The results show that, even though research in human resource development stems from different kinds of disciplines with their own data collection tools, there is nevertheless a rather limited variety in the instruments (questionnaires and interviews only) used for mapping the process of on-the-job learning. This is probably due to the implicit nature of most on-the-job learning processes. The paper proposes to apply research instruments from related research fields that could provide opportunities for future research. Combining instruments seems to offer fruitful opportunities for obtaining a more profound understanding of the process of on-the-job learning. The paper ends with a set of tentative guidelines for sound methodological practices in future research.

Forum for organisational learning: combining learning at work, organisational learning and training in new ways

A new initiative has been taken that aims to combine learning at work, training and organisational learning and change. In this “Forum for organisational learning”, scientists, organisational advisors and practitioners cooperate in new ways in order to reach new goals: improving organisational learning, workplace learning and training and especially their alignment. In the Forum organisations meet each other in order to learn from their experiences with individual, team and organisational learning. Each organisation is represented by at least two and preferably three or more representatives, fulfilling different roles. Some, the thinkers, follow a full master program. Others, the do‐ers, follow only part of this program, but work within the organisation focusing on organisational learning and workplace learning. Finally, in each organisation there is a responsible manager who sponsors the internal organisational process. In the program, five paradoxes of learning form the core content: how to combine top‐down and bottom‐up approaches for strategy formation, how to combine learning and working, how to combine individual and organisational ambitions, how to combine structure and empowerment in leading teams and individuals, and how to combine motivational approaches with approaches directed resistance reduction.

Self-regulation in text processing

In this paper an experiment is reported on the influence of two variations of instructions on learning performance and thinking-aloud protocols of 64 pupils from secondary schools. Furthermore, differences between successful and less successful pupils in self-regulatory processes during text processing are described. The texts consisted of instructions on how to use a computer keyboard and a text-editor. Learning performance referred to both knowledge and application. The variation in instructions did not influence the learning performance and the thinking-aloud protocols (either quantitatively or qualitatively), but the variable Marks/No Marks did. The main differences between successful and less successful pupils occurred in orientation processes, especially with regard to Reflection on Foreknowledge and Gaps in Foreknowledge. Differences also turned up for processes such as Process Selection and Making Summaries. The results are discussed in light of the results from a prior study with an informative text.RésuméUne expérience ayant pour but d’étudier l’influence des consignes d’apprentissage sur les processus d’auto-régulation durant la lecture, l’apprentissage et le contenu des protocoles de pensée à voix haute de 64 collégiens répartis en deux groupes en fonction de leur réussite scolaire a été réalisée. Les textes utilisés étaient de type procédural et présentaient les consignes d’utilisation d’un clavier relié à un ordinateur et d’un logiciel de traitement de texte. Les résultats indiqent que la variation des consignes d’apprentissage n’exerce pas d’influence sur l’apprentissage et sur les protocoles de pensée à voix haute, tant quantitativement que qualitativement. Les principales différences entre les deux groupes s’observent pour les processus d’orientation, en particulier pour la réflexion sur leur pré-savoir et les lacunes de leur pré-savoir. Des différences se manifestent également pour les processus de sélection et de construction de résumés. Ces résultats sont confrontés à ceux qui ont été précédemment obtenus avec des textes explicatifs traitant de la biologie et interprétés à la lumière du modèle proposé par Simons et Lodewijks (1987).

How to use preconceptions? The Contact Strategy dismantled

The effects of the contact strategy (a computer-assisted instructional strategy aimed at conceptual change in text processing) were investigated by dismantling the strategy. An experiment with 86 Ss (5th/6th-graders) was conducted in which the number of instructional steps was cumulatively varied from 0 steps (no activation) over 1 step (search for old idea) and 3 steps (1. search for old idea; 2. compare and contrast with new information; 3. formulate new idea) to all 5 contact steps (1. search for old idea; 2. compare and contrast with new information; 3. formulate new idea; 4. apply new idea; 5. evaluate new idea). A design with 2 between-subjects factors (instructional strategy and students familiarity with the central concepts from the 7 instructional texts used) and 2 within-subjects factors (type of learning performance test item and time of testing) was used. Dependent variables concerned quality of final conceptions and learning performance. Results indicated that the complete contact strategy was the most effective variant. It seemed to be the case, however, that students mainly focused their attention on the central concepts from the texts. In our view, instructional strategies to foster conceptual change should both support knowledge restructuring processes and offer a solution for this problem of selective attention.

Concrete analogies as aids in learning from text

Various theorists have proposed different reasons for the usefulness of concrete analogies in written texts. Some stress a concretizing function, others a structurizing function, and still others suggest that analogies induce a more active processing of the text. The main question which we tried to answer in a series of six experiments were: (a) Does the addition of concrete analogies lead to higher performances and longer reading-times in subjects of different ages? (b) What are the effects under restricted time conditions? (c) Why are concrete analogies effective? (d) Are there aptitude-treatment interactions? In general, the results showed that subjects, when confronted with analogies, not only studied longer, but learned more and different things. However, if the study time was limited, these effects disappeared. Furthermore some aptitude-treatment interactions were found, especially in the case of the visualizer-verbalizer dimension. All three of the above mentioned functions of analogies were supported by the data.