Paolo Riva

Buffer the Pain Away: Stimulating the Right Ventrolateral Prefrontal Cortex Reduces Pain Following Social Exclusion

Social exclusion hurts, literally. Indeed, various forms of social exclusion trigger a pain response (Eisenberger, Lieberman, & Williams, 2003). According to pain-overlap theories (Eisenberger et al., 2003; MacDonald & Leary, 2005), experiences of social and physical threat are processed similarly. Because belonging is critical for survival and reproduction (Baumeister & Leary, 1995), a system that uses similar signals for social and physical threats may have been evolutionarily advantageous. Supporting these theories, several studies have shown that social exclusion activates brain regions that process and regulate the unpleasantness of physical pain—including the dorsal anterior cingulate cortex (dACC) and the right ventrolateral prefrontal cortex (rVLPFC; Eisenberger et al., 2003). Whereas the dACC relates to the affective component of pain (Rainville, Duncan, Price, Carrier, & Bushnell, 1997), the rVLPFC is associated with the regulation of pain (Wager, Davidson, Hughes, Lindquist, & Ochsner, 2008). Accordingly, neuroimaging studies suggest that the rVLPFC inhibits pain resulting from social exclusion (Eisenberger et al., 2003; Kross, Egner, Ochsner, Hirsch, & Downey, 2007; Onoda et al., 2010). Yet whether a causal relationship exists between rVLPFC activity and feelings of social pain has until now been unknown. The experiment reported here provides the first proof of this causal relationship by showing that stimulating the rVLPFC reduces the pain of social exclusion. Specifically, we tested whether noninvasive brain polarization through transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) over rVLPFC, compared with sham stimulation over the same area, reduced pain following social exclusion.

Orders to Shoot (a Camera): Effects of Ostracism on Obedience

ABSTRACT Research suggests that ostracism increases susceptibility to indirect forms of social influence (e.g., conformity). Yet, no study to date has explored whether the effects of ostracism extend to the most direct form of social influence—obedience. We investigated whether ostracized individuals would be more likely to obey a direct command to do something effortful in uncomfortable conditions. Participants (N = 62) were randomly assigned to be included or ostracized in Cyberball, or assigned to a control condition. They were then approached by the experimenter and commanded to go outside when temperatures were below 30°F and take 39 unique and creative photographs in the cold of winter. Ostracized participants were more likely to obey the experimenter’s command to be creative when taking photographs. No differences in obedience emerged between the inclusion and the control condition. We provided evidence completing the social influence “trifecta”: ostracism increases susceptibility to conformity, compliance, and now, obedience.

Interactive Effect of Moral Disengagement and Violent Video Games on Self-Control, Cheating, and Aggression

Violent video games glorify and reward immoral behaviors (e.g., murder, assault, rape, robbery, arson, motor vehicle theft). Based on the moral disengagement theory, we predicted that violent games would increase multiple immoral behaviors (i.e., lack of self-control, cheating, aggression), especially for people high in moral disengagement. High school students (N = 172) who had completed a measure of moral disengagement were randomly assigned to play one of the Grand Theft Auto (GTA) violent video games, or a nonviolent game. Self-control was measured using the weight of uneaten chocolates (i.e., M&M’s) in a bowl by the computer. After gameplay, participants could cheat on a test to win raffle tickets for attractive prizes (e.g., iPad). Aggression was measured using a competitive task in which participants could give an ostensible partner unpleasant noise blasts through headphones. Results showed that violent video games decreased self-control and increased cheating and aggression, especially for people high in moral disengagement.

When Pain Does Not Heal: The Common Antecedents and Consequences of Chronic Social and Physical Pain

Researchers find that social and physical pain overlap in acute episodes. In this article, we hypothesize that social and physical pain overlap in chronic conditions as well. To support this hypothesis, we reviewed the literature and introduced the Integrated Chronic Pain Model (ICPM), which posits that chronic social and physical pain overlap in their psychological antecedents and consequences. Specifically, the ICPM proposes several common factors that play a role in the onset and maintenance of both social and physical chronic pain and indicates that both forms of pain persistently impair self-regulatory resources and threaten the same basic psychological needs.

Chronic social exclusion and evidence for the resignation stage An empirical investigation

Experiences of social exclusion, including ostracism and rejection, can last anywhere from a few seconds to many years. Most research focused on short-term social exclusion, whereas virtually no empirical work has investigated the experiences of long-term social exclusion. Williams theorized that prolonged experiences of social exclusion (i.e., ostracism) would cause individuals to pass from the reflexive and reflective stages to the resignation stage characterized by the inability to recover threatened psychological needs and feelings of alienation, unworthiness, helplessness, and depression. Across two studies, we explored this prediction—and, in light of pain overlap theories, considered the possibility that chronic exclusion and chronic pain induce common psychological responses. Study 1 consisted of a quasi-experimental study involving five groups of participants: (1) those with chronic experiences of social exclusion (n = 82), (2) those with chronic physical pain (n = 82), (3) those with chronic hypertension (n = 69), (4) those with chronic kidney disease (n = 60), and (5) a group of healthy people (n = 83). Participants filled out a questionnaire including measures of need threat, negative emotions, and the four key outcomes linked to the resignation stage (i.e., alienation, unworthiness, helplessness, and depression). Although our data showed little evidence to support the psychological overlap between chronic exclusion and chronic physical pain, the results suggested that chronic experiences of social exclusion were associated with higher levels of negative emotions and resignation stage outcomes compared to participants in all the other groups. Furthermore, we found that threatened psychological needs mediated the effect of social exclusion on the resignation stage outcomes. Study 2 tested, but found no support for, the possibility that acute experiences of social exclusion could increase the resignation stage outcomes. Overall, our research indicates that when people are exposed to short-term exclusion, they recover their threatened psychological needs. However, when enduring chronic social exclusion, they do not, and enter the resignation stage.

Social exclusion: Psychological approaches to understanding and reducing its impact

From ostracism on the playground to romantic rejection, bullying at work, and social disregard for the aged, individuals are at constant risk of experiencing instances of social exclusion, including ostracism, rejection, dehumanization, and discrimination. These phenomena have a powerful impact as testified by their immediate influence on people’s thoughts, emotions, and behaviors. Social Exclusion: Psychological Approaches to Understanding and Reducing Its Impact investigates different psychological approaches, across multiple psychological subdisciplines, to understanding the causes and consequences of social exclusion and possible ways to reduce or buffer against its negative effects. The purpose of this volume is threefold. First, it lays the groundwork for the understanding of social exclusion research; reviewing the different instances of social exclusion in everyday life and methods to experimentally investigate them. Second, this volume brings together different psychological approaches to the topic of social exclusion. Leading scholars from around the world contribute perspectives from social psychology, social neuroscience, developmental psychology, educational psychology, work and organizational psychology, clinical psychology, and social gerontology to provide a comprehensive overview of social exclusion research in different psychological subdisciplines. Taken together, these chapters are conducive to the important development of new and more integrative research models on social exclusion. Finally, this volume discusses psychological strategies such as emotion regulation, psychological resources, and brain mechanisms that can reduce or buffer against the negative consequences of social exclusion. From school shootings to domestic violence, from cognitive impairment to suicide attempts, the negative impact of social exclusion has been widely documented. Thus, from an applied perspective, knowing potential ways to mitigate the negative effects of social exclusion can have a significant positive influence on people’s—and society’s—well-being. Overall, this book provides the reader with the knowledge to understand the impact of social exclusion and with tools to address it across many different contexts.

Acting like a tough guy: Violent-sexist video games, identification with game characters, masculine beliefs, & empathy for female violence victims

Empathy—putting oneself in another’s shoes—has been described as the “social glue” that holds society together. This study investigates how exposure to sexist video games can decrease empathy for female violence victims. We hypothesized that playing violent-sexist video games would increase endorsement of masculine beliefs, especially among participants who highly identify with dominant and aggressive male game characters. We also hypothesized that the endorsement of masculine beliefs would reduce empathy toward female violence victims. Participants (N = 154) were randomly assigned to play a violent-sexist game, a violent-only game, or a non-violent game. After gameplay, measures of identification with the game character, traditional masculine beliefs, and empathy for female violence victims were assessed. We found that participants’ gender and their identification with the violent male video game character moderated the effects of the exposure to sexist-violent video games on masculine beliefs. Our results supported the prediction that playing violent-sexist video games increases masculine beliefs, which occurred for male (but not female) participants who were highly identified with the game character. Masculine beliefs, in turn, negatively predicted empathic feelings for female violence victims. Overall, our study shows who is most affected by the exposure to sexist-violent video games, and why the effects occur. (200 words)

Electrified emotions: Modulatory effects of transcranial direct stimulation on negative emotional reactions to social exclusion

Social exclusion, ostracism, and rejection can be emotionally painful because they thwart the need to belong. Building on studies suggesting that the right ventrolateral prefrontal cortex (rVLPFC) is associated with regulation of negative emotions, the present experiment tests the hypothesis that decreasing the cortical excitability of the rVLPFC may increase negative emotional reactions to social exclusion. Specifically, we applied cathodal transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) over the rVLPFC and predicted an increment of negative emotional reactions to social exclusion. In Study 1, participants were either socially excluded or included, while cathodal tDCS or sham stimulation was applied over the rVLPFC. Cathodal stimulation of rVLPFC boosted the typical negative emotional reaction caused by social exclusion. No effects emerged from participants in the inclusion condition. To test the specificity of tDCS effects over rVLPFC, in Study 2, participants were socially excluded and received cathodal tDCS or sham stimulation over a control region (i.e., the right posterior parietal cortex). No effects of tDCS stimulation were found. Our results showed that the rVLPFC is specifically involved in emotion regulation and suggest that cathodal stimulation can increase negative emotional responses to social exclusion.

Taking into account the observers’ uncertainty: a graduated approach to the credibility of the patient’s pain evaluation

This article presents two experiments aiming to investigate the adoption of a graduated measure to describe credibility attribution by observers who evaluate patients’ pain accounts. A total of 160 medical students were required to express a credibility judgment on the pain intensity level of hypothetical patients. We used 16 vignettes based on a factorial mixed-design. Within-participants factors were the reported pain, the presence of a physical sign, the patient’s facial expression and the patient’s gender, and between-groups factors were the patient’s age and the geographical distribution of the patient’s name. Results confirm the well-established tendency not to believe patients’ self-reports and provide information regarding the evaluators’ uncertainty. The findings suggest that a graduated measure is useful for assessing the degree of uncertainty of the observers and subtle effects of different factors upon the judgment of patient’s pain.

Neuromodulation can reduce aggressive behavior elicited by violent video games

Research has shown that exposure to violent media increases aggression. However, the neural underpinnings of violent-media-related aggression are poorly understood. Additionally, few experiments have tested hypotheses concerning how to reduce violent-media-related aggression. In this experiment, we focused on a brain area involved in the regulation of aggressive impulses—the right ventrolateral prefrontal cortex (rVLPFC). We tested the hypothesis that brain polarization through anodal transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) over rVLPFC reduces aggression related to violent video games. Participants (N = 79) were randomly assigned to play a violent or a nonviolent video game while receiving anodal or sham stimulation. Afterward, participants aggressed against an ostensible partner using the Taylor aggression paradigm (Taylor Journal of Personality, 35, 297–310, 1967), which measures both unprovoked and provoked aggression. Among those who received sham stimulation, unprovoked aggression was significantly higher for violent-game players than for nonviolent-game players. Among those who received anodal stimulation, unprovoked aggression did not differ for violent- and nonviolent-game players. Thus, anodal stimulation reduced unprovoked aggression in violent-game players. No significant effects were found for provoked aggression, suggesting tit-for-tat responding. This experiment sheds light on one possible neural underpinning of violent-media-related aggression—the rVLPFC, a brain area involved in regulating negative feelings and aggressive impulses.