Patricia H. Miller

A Developmental Perspective on Executive Function

This review article examines theoretical and methodological issues in the construction of a developmental perspective on executive function (EF) in childhood and adolescence. Unlike most reviews of EF, which focus on preschoolers, this review focuses on studies that include large age ranges. It outlines the development of the foundational components of EF-inhibition, working memory, and shifting. Cognitive and neurophysiological assessments show that although EF emerges during the first few years of life, it continues to strengthen significantly throughout childhood and adolescence. The components vary somewhat in their developmental trajectories. The article relates the findings to long-standing issues of development (e.g., developmental sequences, trajectories, and processes) and suggests research needed for constructing a developmental framework encompassing early childhood through adolescence.

Exercise Improves Executive Function and Achievement and Alters Brain Activation in Overweight Children: A Randomized, Controlled Trial

OBJECTIVE This experiment tested the hypothesis that exercise would improve executive function. DESIGN Sedentary, overweight 7- to 11-year-old children (N = 171, 56% girls, 61% Black, M ± SD age = 9.3 ± 1.0 years, body mass index [BMI] = 26 ± 4.6 kg/m², BMI z-score = 2.1 ± 0.4) were randomized to 13 ± 1.6 weeks of an exercise program (20 or 40 min/day), or a control condition. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES Blinded, standardized psychological evaluations (Cognitive Assessment System and Woodcock-Johnson Tests of Achievement III) assessed cognition and academic achievement. Functional MRI measured brain activity during executive function tasks. RESULTS Intent to treat analysis revealed dose-response benefits of exercise on executive function and mathematics achievement. Preliminary evidence of increased bilateral prefrontal cortex activity and reduced bilateral posterior parietal cortex activity attributable to exercise was also observed. CONCLUSION Consistent with results obtained in older adults, a specific improvement on executive function and brain activation changes attributable to exercise were observed. The cognitive and achievement results add evidence of dose-response and extend experimental evidence into childhood. This study provides information on an educational outcome. Besides its importance for maintaining weight and reducing health risks during a childhood obesity epidemic, physical activity may prove to be a simple, important method of enhancing aspects of childrens mental functioning that are central to cognitive development. This information may persuade educators to implement vigorous physical activity.

Effects of Aerobic Exercise on Overweight Children's Cognitive Functioning : A Randomized Controlled Trial

The study tested the effect of aerobic exercise training on executive function in overweight children. Ninety-four sedentary, overweight but otherwise healthy children (mean age = 9.2 years, body mass index ? 85th percentile) were randomized to a low-dose (20 min/day exercise), high-dose (40 min/day exercise), or control condition. Exercise sessions met 5 days/week for 15 weeks. The Cognitive Assessment System (CAS), a standardized test of cognitive processes, was administered individually before and following intervention. Analysis of covariance on posttest scores revealed effects on executive function. Group differences emerged for the CAS Planning scale (p = .03). Planning scores for the high-dose group were significantly greater than those of the control group. Exercise may prove to be a simple, yet important, method of enhancing aspects of childrens mental functioning that are central to cognitive and social development.

Gender Differences in High‐school Students’ Views about Science

This study examined gender differences in 79 high‐school students’ attitudes towards their science classes, their perceptions of science and scientists, and their views about majoring in science. The study identified some of the subtleties underlying females’ low participation in, and interest in, science documented in previous research. Four themes emerged from responses on the rating scales and questionnaire. First, even when females planned to major in science, they were more interested than males in the people‐oriented aspects of their planned majors. Second, biology was the one exception to females’ low interest in science. Third, females often planned a science major mainly because they needed a science background in order to enter a health profession such as medicine or physical therapy. Fourth, females generally found science uninteresting and the scientific lifestyle (as perceived by them) unattractive. Implications for teaching science were discussed.

Conceptual Development : Piaget's Legacy

Contents: M. Chandler, Foreword. E.K. Scholnick, Piagets Legacy: Heirs to the House That Jean Built. Part I:How Should We Represent the Workings and Contents of the Mind? R. Case, Conceptual Development in the Child and in the Field: A Personal View of the Piagetian Legacy. A.N. Meltzoff, M.K. Moore, A New Foundation for Cognitive Development in Infancy: The Birth of the Representational Infant. S.A. Gelman, G. Diesendruck, A Reconsideration of Concepts: On the Compatibility of Psychological Essentialism and Context Sensitivity. F.C. Keil, K.L. Lockhart, Explanatory Understanding in Conceptual Development. D. Klahr, The Conceptual Habitat: In What Kind of System Can Concepts Develop? Part II:How Does the Child Construct a Mental Model During the Course of Development? What Is the Developmental Origin of This Model? R. Garcia, A Systemic Interpretation of Piagets Theory of Knowledge. S. Oyama, Locating Development: Locating Developmental Systems. P.H. Miller, T.R. Coyle, Developmental Change: Lessons From Microgenesis. Part III:What Accounts for the Novelties That Are the Products and Producers of Developmental Change? J. Voneche, The Origin of Piagets Ideas About Genesis and Development. G.B. Saxe, Sources of Concepts: A Cultural-Developmental Perspective. K. Nelson, Levels and Modes of Representation: Issues for the Theory of Conceptual Change and Development. S. Carey, Sources of Conceptual Change.

The Development of Children's Strategies for Selective Attention: Evidence for a Transitional Period.

Previous research suggests a developmental lag between producing a strategy of selective attention and benefiting from it. This aspect of the transitional period during strategy acquisition was investigated in the present study by comparing recall following child-produced (Session 1) and experimenter-produced (Session 2) strategies. The 114 7-9-year-olds were told to remember a subset of 6 items (either animals or household) located beneath 2 rows of doors. Session 1 assessed each childs spontaneous strategy (pattern of opening doors) over 6 trials. Session 2 included 7 different trial types, during which the experimenter opened the doors, thereby equating the strategies for children of all ages. The results revealed gradual changes in childrens ability both to produce and to benefit from a selective strategy. Whereas younger children performed differently on trial types during which only the 6 relevant versus all 12 items were shown, older children recalled a similar number of items for all trial types, regardless of the number or pattern of door openings provided. Adult-produced selectivity eliminated recall differences among the grades and suggested that strategy production is effortful for younger children and therefore may prevent their benefiting from the strategy.

An 8-Month Randomized Controlled Exercise Trial Alters Brain Activation During Cognitive Tasks in Overweight Children

Children who are less fit reportedly have lower performance on tests of cognitive control and differences in brain function. This study examined the effect of an exercise intervention on brain function during two cognitive control tasks in overweight children.

Path Analysis Tests of Theoretical Models of Children's Memory Performance.

Path analysis was used to test theoretical models of relations among variables known to predict differences in childrens memory-strategies, capacity, and metamemory. Children in kindergarten to fourth grade (chronological ages 5 to 11) performed different memory tasks. Several strategies (i.e., sorting, clustering, rehearsal, and self-testing) were coded from videotapes and their average number of different strategies served as the strategy variable. Memory span and task-specific metamemory tasks served as the capacity and metamemory variables, respectively. The W�rzburg Model, derived from laboratories in Germany, had a significant chi-square statistic. The more successful Utilization Deficiency Model had a nonsignificant chi-square statistic and accounted for 48% of the variance in recall. Additional support for the Utilization Deficiency Model was evident from the significant path coefficients, which suggested that metamemory drives the production of strategies and that both metamemory and capacity constrain or enhance the effectiveness of those strategies.

Theory of mind and executive function in Chinese preschool children

Cross-cultural research on childrens theory of mind (ToM) understanding has raised questions about its developmental sequence and relationship with executive function (EF). The current study examined how ToM develops (using the tasks from Wellman & Liu, 2004) in relation to 2 EF skills (conflict inhibition, working memory) in 997 Chinese preschoolers (ages 3, 4, 5) in Chengdu, China. Compared with prior research with other Chinese and non-Chinese children, some general patterns in development were replicated in this sample. However, the children showed culture-specific reversals in the developmental sequence of ToM. For example, Chengdu children performed differently on the 2 false-belief tasks that were thought to be equivalent. Furthermore, conflict inhibition as well as working memory uniquely predicted ToM performance. We discuss the issues of ToM development as they relate to test items and cross-cultural--and subcultural--differences.

A show of hands: Relations between young children's gesturing and executive function.

This study brought together 2 literatures-gesturing and executive function-in order to examine the possible role of gesture in childrens executive function. Children (N = 41) aged 2½-6 years performed a sorting-shift executive function task (Dimensional Change Card Sort). Responses of interest included correct sorting, response latency, spontaneous gestures, and verbal and gestural explanations for sorts. An examination of performance over trials permitted a fine-grained depiction of patterns of younger and older high gesturing versus low gesturing children. Relevant gesturing was positively associated with correct sorting, even more strongly than was age, and had its greatest impact right after the shift to a new relevant dimension. Generally high gesturers outperformed low gesturers even on trials in which the former did not gesture. Results were discussed in terms of theories of gesturing and of possible processes (e.g., scaffolding, adding a second representation) by which gestures might facilitate executive function, and vice versa. Possible preexisting differences between high and low gesturers also were considered. The findings open up a new avenue of research and theorizing about the possible role of gesturing in emerging executive function.