Paul A. Montagna

The effect of freshwater inflow on meiofaunal and macrofaunal populations in the Guadalupe and Nueces Estuaries, Texas

Two estuaries with very different inflow characteristics were compared to test the hypothesis that benthic standing crops are enhanced by freshwater inflow. Assuming predation pressure is similar in both estuaries, this would imply that freshwater inflow enhances secondary production. The Guadalupe Estuary had 79 times more freshwater inflow than the Nueces Estuary, and a third of the salinity. The Guadalupe had higher macrofaunal densities and biomass than the Nueces, and both parameters increased with decreasing salinity within the Guadalupe Estuary. Macrofauna density increased with increasing salinity in the Nueces Estuary, due to invasion by marine species. However, meiofauna population size responds differently than macrofauna. Meiofaunal densities were higher in the low-inflow Nueces Estuary, and increased with increasing salinity in both estuaries. Macrofauna diversity increased with salinity, both within and between estuaries. The macrofauna response supports the hypothesis that increased freshwater inflow stimulates secondary production. A review of past benthic studies in these estuaries and the historical climatic patterns indicate that wet years with high inflow result in increased macrofaunal productivity. Since, macrofaunal diversity decreased with lower salinity both within and between the estuaries, the enhanced productivity is due to increases by freshwater and estuarine species that can tolerate low salinities. Increased macrofaunal densities are associated with decreasing meiofaunal densities. The latter result could be due to either increased macrofaunal competition with or predation on meiofauna, or a lack of low-salinity tolerance by meiofauna.

Seasonal hypoxia and models of benthic response in a Texas Bay

Hypoxia occurs during summer in the southeastern region of Corpus Christi Bay, Texas. The objectives of this study were to identify potential causes of recurrent hypoxic events, to determine hypoxic effects on benthic macroinfauna, and to develop models of benthic response. Long-term and short-term hydrographic surveys were performed, and macroinfaunal samples were collected from normoxic and hypoxic regions of the bay. Hypoxia occurred in seven of the nine summers sampled (1988 to 1996). In 1994, the hypoxic event persisted for approximately 3 wk. Hypoxic events were associated with water column stratification where the difference between bottom and surface salinity was as high as 7.2‰ and averaged 4.1‰ The salinity difference is surprising because water column stratification is not expected in shallow (< 4 m), windy (average 18.5 km h−1) bays. Stratification did occur—hypersaline bottom water in a relatively stagnant portion of the bay—in spite of mixing forces (i.e., high winds), giving rise to hypoxia. Benthic biomass decreased 12-fold, and abundance and diversity decreased 5-fold under hypoxic conditions. In addition, dominance patterns shifted as oxygen levels declined from 5 mg O2 1−1 to <1 mg O2 1−1. The polychaete Streblospio benedicti and oligochaetes tolerated low oxygen better than other infauna. Community response to hypoxic disturbance was fit to a nonparametric categorical model and a parametric logistic model. Biomass, abundance, and diversity exhibited a lag response at <3 mg l−1, and increased exponentially from 3 mg 1−1 to 6 mg 1−1. Based on both models, 3 mg 1−1 appears to define the breakpoint between normoxic and hypoxic benthic communities in Corpus Christi Bay. This value is higher than traditional definitions of hypoxia, <2 mg 1−1 or <2 ml 1−1 (ca. 2.8 mg 1−1). *** DIRECT SUPPORT *** A01BY085 00002

Small-scale spatial variation of macrobenthic community structure

Examination of small-scale spatial variation in essential to understanding the relationships between environmental factors and benthic community structure in estuaries. A sampling experiment was performed in October 1993 to measure infauna association with sediment composition and salinity gradients in Nueces Bay, Texas, USA. The bay was partitioned into four salinity zones and three sediment types. Higher densities of macrofaua, were found in sediments with greater sand content and in areas with higher salinity. High diversity was also associated with high homogeneous salinity (31–33‰) and greater sand content. Macrofauna biomass and diversity were positively correlated with bottom salinity, porewater salinity, and bottom dissolved inorganic nitrogen (DIN). Furthermore, species dominance shifted along the estuarine gradient.Streblospio benedicti dominated at lower salinity, but,Mediomatsus ambiseta andMulinia lateralis were the dominant species at higher salinity. Statistical analyses revealed significant correlations for sediment characteristics (i.e., increased fine sediments, water content, and total organic carbon) with decreased total abundance and diversity. Increased salinity and DIN were correlated with increased total biomass, diversity, and macrofauma community structure. These physico-chemical variables are regulated by freshwater inflow, so inflow is an important factor influencing macrofauna community structure by indirectly influencing the physico-chemical environment.

Effect of production and biomass of intertidal microphytobenthos on meiofaunal grazing rates

Abstract Microphytobenthos dominate primary production in unvegetated intertidal habitats. Meiofauna are likely to be important consumers of this productivity, yet little is known about meiofauna herbivory in these environments. We studied meiofaunal grazing on microphytobenthos from an intertidal mudflat on the southwest coast of France. Meiofaunal grazing rates were measured in response to manipulations that varied microphytobenthos production and biomass to determine if meiofauna have functional responses to changes in food quality and quantity. Harpacticoid and ostracod grazing rates did not change in response to changes of microphytobenthos production, but nematode grazing rates did increase with increasing production. As microphytobenthos biomass increased, meiofauna responded with greater grazing rates, removing more biomass per unit time, yet taking longer periods of time to deplete (or clear) the microbial population. Therefore, meiofauna taxa exhibited functional responses to microphytobenthos as food, although different taxa had different responses. The impact of these responses in the laboratory could be seen in the field. For example, when chlorophyll a (Chl a) concentration in the top 1 cm of sediment increased from 31.7 mg · m−2 to 124 mg · m−2 2 wk later, the total community grazing rates increased from 32.9 ng Chl a · h−1 to 176 ng Chl a · h−1. Harpacticoid densities also increased 2.7 times, but nematode and ostracod densities remained the same. The results of this study support the idea that intertidal meiofauna, particularly harpacticoids, have a dependent relationship with their autotrophic food resources in intertidal habitats and can regulate their behavior to maximize intake of food.

Effect of restored freshwater inflow on macrofauna and meiofauna in upper Rincon Bayou, Texas, USA

Construction of two dams in 1958 and 1982 reduced freshwater inflow events to Rincon Bayou, part of the Nueces Delta near Corpus Christi, Texas, USA. Inflow reduction led to a reverse estuary, where low-salinity water flooded the delta on incoming tides and higher salinities were found near the Nueces River. Hypersaline conditions caused by high evaporation rates and low water levels were common during summer in the upper reaches. In October 1995, an overflow diversion channel was created by lowering the bank of the Nueces River to restore inflow events into Rincon Bayou, which is the main stem creek that runs through the center of the Delta. Hypersaline conditions occurred four times from mid-1994 to mid-1997 and only once after mid-1997. Lower, rather than higher, salinity conditions were found after August 1997 in the upper reaches. Benthic faunal recovery was monitored by changes in macrofauna and meiofauna communities. Macrofauna responded to inflow events with increased abundances, biomass, and diversity but decreased during hypersaline conditions. Meiofauna abundance also increased with increasing inflow. Benthic characteristics were different in Rincon Bayou than in a reference site, upstream from introduced inflow. As inflow events have increased due to the diversion, the opportunities for positive responses to increased flow have increased. Although the oveflow channel was filled in at the end of the demonstration project in fall 2000, the City of Corpus Christi reopened the channel in fall 2001 because the ecological benefits were credited toward the state-mandated minimum flow requirement for the Nueces Estuary.

PHOTOSYNTHETIC RESPONSE OF NATURAL ASSEMBLAGES OF MARINE BENTHIC MICROALGAE TO SHORT-AND LONG-TERM VARIATIONS OF INCIDENT IRRADIANCE IN BAFFIN BAY, TEXAS1

This study was designed to understand the high variability characterizing primary production rates of microphytobenthos. The photosynthetic efficiency (αB) and photosynthetic capacity (PBmax) of the microphytobenthos were measured at different times of the day on two different dates (8 May and 7 July 1990). In July, unusually low light conditions were caused by the development of a brown tide (chrysophytes). Both light‐limited and light‐saturated photosynthesis changed at hourly and monthly scales. There was a linear relationship between αB and PBmax, suggesting a common response to environmental factors [αB= 0.0075(±0.00063)·PBmax+ 0.00097(±0.0071), R2= 0.94]. Incident irradiance at the sediment‐water interface was the primary physical factor that explained variability of both αB (84%) and PBmax (92%). Temperature had a negative but minor effect that explained an extra 8% and 2% of the variance, respectively. There was no diel rhythm of αB and PBmax and incident irradiance was regulated by wind‐induced currents. Therefore, microphytobenthos photosynthesis seemed to be primarily controlled by wind events in Baffin Bay.

Freshwater Inflow: Science, Policy, Management

The papers in this special issue were presented in a special session during the 2001 biennial conference of the Estuarine Research Federation held in St. Pete Beach, Florida. The session, “Freshwater inflow: Science, policy and management,” was focused on issues related to reduced freshwater inflow to estuaries. The session brought together scientists, managers, and regulators, and included presentations on the estimation of freshwater input to estuaries, development of ecological indicators to assess changes in inflow, management strategies used to set freshwater requirements, and experiences with the reintroduction of freshwater to restore inflow.

Vertical distribution of microbial and meiofaunal populations in sediments of a natural coastal hydrocarbon seep

We studied the vertical distribution of microbes and meiofauna in natural hydrocarbon seep sediments to determine if there was a relationship between profiles of benthic trophic structure and the unique biogeochemical conditions present at the seep. Three stations in the Santa Barbara Channel represented a gradient of natural petroleum seepage, from very active, to moderate, to none. Seasonal differences were examined by sampling in the three major oceanographic seasons, upwelling (April), mixed (July), and Davidson (December). Densities of microbes and meiofauna were highest in July, and decreased in winter. All population sizes decreased with increasing depth in the sediment. Harpacticoids and Chi a were practically restricted to the surface sediments. Harpacticoids and ChI a were more dense (number per unit volume or strata of sediment) and abundant (number per unit area of sediment or sum of the strata) at the comparison site than at the seep sites. Density and abundance of nematodes, bacteria cell counts, and bacterial biomass were greater at the station with the most active seepage rates. Bacterial biovolumes appeared constant among sediment depths and stations, but cell biovolumes were larger in July. The data are consistent with the hypothesis that organic enrichment via petroleum utilization is responsible for increased abundances of bacteria and nematodes at the seep. There were strong correlations between densities of harpacticoids and microalgae, and densities of nematodes and bacteria. These links indicate that seeping petroleum might have an enhanced effect on the detrital (bacterial based) food web, but a toxic effect on the grazing (microaIgaI based) food web.

The effect of freshwater inflow on meiofaunal consumption of sediment bacteria and microphytobenthos in San Antonio Bay, Texas, U.S.A.

Abstract If meiofauna are food-limited then they should respond with increased feeding rates when microbial production is stimulated. River inflow into estuaries is a source of organic matter that can be limiting to bacterial production, and nutrients that might limit primary production. Therefore, inflow should stimulate microbial primary and secondary production, and eventually meiofauna grazing rates should increase as a functional response to increased food availability and quality. To determine if meiofauna grazing rates were affected by inflow, two replicate stations were sampled in the upper, river-dominated end, of San Antonio Bay and contrasted with two replicate stations at the lower end of the estuary. The experiments were performed three times. Water column nutrients and sediment organic matter were higher in the upper end of the estuary than in the lower end. Benthic primary production was 2·5 times higher in the upper end than in the lower end. Benthic metabolism (measured by oxygen consumption) was also higher in the upper end, but bacterial production (measured by thymidine uptake) was not significantly different between the two ends. Grazing rates were 3·5 times higher on bacteria, and 2·5 times higher on microalgae in the upper end of the estuary than in the lower end, confirming our hypothesis that inflow would stimulate grazing rates. Grazing rates were dominated by juvenile molluscs (temporary meiofauna) which accounted for 39% of the microalgae and 68% of the bacteria ingested by the community. Juvenile molluscs were most prevalent in the upper, fresh-water zone. Harpacticoid copepods and nematodes had higher grazing rates in the lower end of the estuary. Grazing rates were higher on microalgae than on bacteria: 4% of the microalgae were removed per hour, compared to only 1% of the bacteria. Grazing rates on microalgae were 2·6 times higher than productivity, indicating meiofauna might be food-limited. Grazing on bacteria was low, and production (based on oxygen metabolism) exceeded grazing; thus bacterial food is not apparently limiting. Freshwater inflow can affect meiobenthic community structure, stimulate microbial production, and stimulate feeding rates by small invertebrates that can benefit by the increase in microbial production.

Partitioning radiolabeled thymidine uptake by bacteria and meiofauna using metabolic blocks and poisons in benthic feeding studies

Techniques exist which allow for the measurement of in situ grazing rates of meiobenthos on sedimentary bacteria and microalgae. Radiolabeled substrates are incorporated into microbes which serve as food for meiofauna and which themselves also become labeled during feeding. However, during in situ grazing experiments, meiofauna may become radiolabeled by a variety of non-feeding processes. Proper controls to correct for these extraneous routes of labeling have been developed in the present study. The use of [methyl-3H] thymidine (3HTdR) in studies of meiofaunal grazing on bacteria has two unique advantages: (1) it is incorporated only into prokaryotic macromolecules, and (2) bacterial incorporation of 3HTdR may be selectively blocked by several inhibitors which are non-toxic to meiofaunal grazers. Coupled with formalin-killed control treatments, the use of these inhibitors makes it possible to accurately determine the partitioning of radiolabel into meiofauna during grazing into adsorptive, absorptive and grazing components. A saturated solution of nalidixic acid and 5′-deoxythymidine was found to be most effective in inhibiting water-column bacterial uptake and incorporation of 3HTdR, and had no toxic effects on meiofauna. The inhibitor was found to immediately block bacterial incorporation of 3HTdR and was as effective at 20% saturation as at 100%. The presence of sediment reduced the effectiveness of this inhibitor by 50%. Solutions of the inhibitor with excess undissolved material, however, completely blocked sediment bacterial uptake of 3HTdR. Employing these techniques during in situ grazing experiments showed that up to 83% of total meiofaunal uptake of 3H-label may be attributable to non-grazing processes. Experiments conducted in slurried sediments yielded grazing rates which were the same as those from intact cores. Furthermore, meiofaunal grazing rates on multiple food sources (e.g. bacteria and diatoms) may be determined synoptically by adding isotopically-distinct substrates (e.g. 3HTdR and H14CO3) to the same experimental incubation.