Paul Ayres

The Expertise Reversal Effect

When new information is presented to learners, it must be processed in a severely limited working memory. Learning reduces working memory limitations by enabling the use of schemas, stored in long-term memory, to process information more efficiently. Several instructional techniques have been designed to facilitate schema construction and automation by reducing working memory load. Recently, however, strong evidence has emerged that the effectiveness of these techniques depends very much on levels of learner expertise. Instructional techniques that are highly effective with inexperienced learners can lose their effectiveness and even have negative consequences when used with more experienced learners. We call this phenomenon the expertise reversal effect. In this article, we review the empirical literature on the interaction between instructional techniques and levels of learner experience that led to the identification of the expertise reversal effect.

The Cambridge Handbook of Multimedia Learning: The Split-Attention Principle in Multimedia Learning

The split-attention principle states that when designing instruction, including multimedia instruction, it is important to avoid formats that require learners to split their attention between, and mentally integrate, multiple sources of information. Instead, materials should be formatted so that disparate sources of information are physically and temporally integrated thus obviating the need for learners to engage in mental integration. By eliminating the need to mentally integrate multiple sources of information, extraneous working memory load is reduced, freeing resources for learning. This chapter provides the theoretical rationale, based on cognitive load theory, for the split-attention principle, describes the major experiments that establish the validity of the principle, and indicates the instructional design implications when dealing with multimedia materials. Definition of Split-Attention Instructional split-attention occurs when learners are required to split their attention between and mentally integrate several sources of physically or temporally disparate information, where each source of information is essential for understanding the material. Cognitive load is increased by the need to mentally integrate the multiple sources of information. This increase in extraneous cognitive load (see chapter 2) is likely to have a negative impact on learning compared to conditions where the information has been restructured to eliminate the need to split attention. Restructuring occurs by physically or temporally integrating disparate sources of information to eliminate the need for mental integration. The split-attention effect occurs when learners studying integrated information outperform learners studying the same information

Research on Cognitive Load Theory and Its Design Implications for E-Learning

This introduction to the special issue provides a context for the contributing articles. for readers who are not familiar with cognitive load theory (CLT), it provides a very brief description of assumptions regarding memory systems and learning processes, different types of cognitive load (intrinsic, extraneous, and germane), and design implications. Whereas traditional CLT research focused on instructional methods to decrease extraneous cognitive load that is not directly relevant for learning, contributions to this special issue represent wider perspectives that reflect new developments in CLT. These articles have been organized into three categories: (a) methods to decrease intrinsic cognitive load, and deal with high-element interactivity materials, (b) methods to increase germane cognitive load that is directly relevant for learning, and (c) methods to deal with differences in learners individual levels of expertise and expertise development. To conclude, design implications for (adaptive) e-learning are discussed.

The Impact of Sequencing and Prior Knowledge on Learning Mathematics through Spreadsheet Applications.

According to cognitive load theory, instruction needs to be designed in a manner that facilitates the acquisition of knowledge in long-term memory while reducing unnecessary demands on working memory. When technology is used to deliver instruction, the sequence in which students learn to use the technology and learn the relevant subject matter may have cognitive load implications, and should interact with their prior knowledge levels. An experiment, using spreadsheets to assist studient learning of mathematics, indicated that for studients with little knowledge of spreadsheets, sequential instruction on spreadsheets followed by mathematics instruction was superior to a concurrent presentation. The reverse was found for studients with more knowledge of spreadsheets. These results are explained in terms of cognitive load theory.

Instructional animations can be superior to statics when learning human motor skills

Based on the assumption of a working memory processor devoted to human movement, cognitive load theory is used to explore some conditions under which animated instructions are hypothesised to be more effective for learning than equivalent static graphics. Using paper-folding tasks dealing with human movement, results from three experiments confirmed our hypothesis, indicating a superiority of animation over static graphics. These results are discussed in terms of a working memory processor that may be facilitated by our mirror-neuron system and may explain why animated instructional animations are superior to static graphics for cognitively based tasks that involve human movement.

Learning hand manipulative tasks: When instructional animations are superior to equivalent static representations

Cognitive load theory was used to argue why instructional animations are more effective in teaching human motor skills than static representations. A key aspect to this argument is the role played by the transitory nature of animation and the newly discovered human mirror-neuron system. In two experiments students were taught to tie knots or complete puzzle rings either through an animated presentation or an equivalent sequence of static diagrams. In both experiments students learnt more from the animation mode than the static one, thus supporting the general thesis of the paper.

Contemporary cognitive load theory research: The good, the bad and the ugly

This paper reviews the 16 contributions of the special issue entitled Current Research in Cognitive Load Theory. Each paper is briefly summarized and some critical comments made. The overall collection is then discussed in terms of the positive contributions they make to the field of learning and instruction, and cognitive load theory in particular (the good), as well as problematical issues such as unresolved explanations and conflicting results (the bad) and the special case of measuring cognitive load (the ugly).

Effective Teaching in the Context of a Grade 12 High-Stakes External Examination in New South Wales, Australia.

This study identified effective teachers of high-achieving Grade 12 students in New South Wales, Australia. Nineteen teachers, across a variety of curriculum areas, were observed teaching and then interviewed. A further six teachers were interviewed only. Despite the high-stakes end-of-schooling examination, generating interest in and understanding of the subject was their paramount concern. A key common factor was an emphasis on having students apply knowledge, rather than being ‘spoon-fed’ information. Although many aspects of the lessons were channelled through the teachers, frequent opportunities existed for independent learning. Classrooms were relaxed environments, but highly focused. Teachers attributed their success to four major factors: their relationships with students, their classroom practices, the students themselves and faculty cooperation. No evidence was found that the high-stakes examination inhibited best-practice teaching.

Editorial: State of the art research into Cognitive Load Theory

Ayres, P., & Van Gog, T. (2009). Editorial: State of the art research into Cognitive Load Theory. Computers in Human Behavior, 25, 253-257.

Translating words into equations: A cognitive load theory approach

The conditions under which explicit instruction in checking, combined with worked examples, may be beneficial in learning how to translate sentences into algebraic equations was examined from the perspective of cognitive load theory. In two experiments it was shown that Grade 8 and 9 students were initially disadvantaged by the inclusion of a checking method. However, after a more substantial period of acquisition, students with a low level of mathematical knowledge performed significantly better after receiving checking instructions than those who did not receive checking instructions. In contrast, higher knowledge students were continually disadvantaged by the inclusion of a checking method. The positive effect of checking for lower knowledge students and the negative effect for higher knowledge students in this domain is a further example of the expertise reversal effect.