Slava Kalyuga

The Expertise Reversal Effect

When new information is presented to learners, it must be processed in a severely limited working memory. Learning reduces working memory limitations by enabling the use of schemas, stored in long-term memory, to process information more efficiently. Several instructional techniques have been designed to facilitate schema construction and automation by reducing working memory load. Recently, however, strong evidence has emerged that the effectiveness of these techniques depends very much on levels of learner expertise. Instructional techniques that are highly effective with inexperienced learners can lose their effectiveness and even have negative consequences when used with more experienced learners. We call this phenomenon the expertise reversal effect. In this article, we review the empirical literature on the interaction between instructional techniques and levels of learner experience that led to the identification of the expertise reversal effect.

Managing split‐attention and redundancy in multimedia instruction

Two experiments investigated alternatives to split-attention instructional designs. It was assumed that because a learner has a limited working memory capacity, any increase in cognitive resources required to process split-attention materials decreases resources available for learning. Using computer-based instructional material consisting of diagrams and text, Experiment 1 attempted to ameliorate split-attention effects by increasing effective working memory size by presenting the text in auditory form. Auditory presentation of text proved superior to visual-only presentation but not when the text was presented in both auditory and visual forms. In that case, the visual form was redundant and imposed a cognitive load that interfered with learning. Experiment 2 ameliorated split-attention effects by using colour coding to reduce cognitive load inducing search for diagrammatic referents in the text. Mental load rating scales provided evidence in both experiments that alternatives to split-attention instructional designs were effective due to reductions in cognitive load. Copyright

When problem solving is superior to studying worked examples

Interactions between levels of learner knowledge in a domain and levels of instructional guidance were investigated. Inexperienced mechanical trade apprentices were presented with either a series of worked examples to study or problems to solve. On subsequent tests, inexperienced trainees benefited most from the worked examples condition, with this group performing better with lower ratings of mental load than similar trainees who solved problems. With more experience in the domain, worked examples became redundant and problem solving proved superior. It is suggested that the relative effectiveness of either worked examples or problem solving depends heavily on levels of learner knowledge.

Levels of Expertise and Instructional Design

Cognitive load theory assumes that information should be structured to eliminate any avoidable load on working memory in order to enhance learning. We hypothesized that the appropriate type of structure may depend on the learners level of expertise. Less expert learners using a diagram might require the diagram to be physically integrated with related text-based information in order to reduce cognitive load. However, the same diagram might be intelligible in isolation by more experienced learners, who might require the elimination of redundant text to reduce cognitive load. The results of three experiments indicated that as level of expertise increased, the best instructional designs changed from ones in which diagrams and text were physically integrated to ones in which the text was eliminated.

Incorporating Learner Experience Into the Design of Multimedia Instruction

In Experiment 1, inexperienced trade apprentices were presented with one of four alternative instructional designs: a diagram with visual text, a diagram with auditory text, a diagram with both visual and auditory text, or the diagram only. An auditory presentation of text proved superior to a visual-only presentation but not when the text was presented in both auditory and visual forms. The diagram-only format was the least intelligible to inexperienced learners. When participants became more experienced in the domain after two specifically designed training sessions, the advantage of a visual diagram-auditory text format disappeared. In Experiment 2, the diagram-only group was compared with the audio-text group after an additional training session. The results were the reverse of those of Experiment 1: The diagram-only group outperformed the audio-text group. Suggestions are made for multimedia instruction that takes learner experience into consideration. The experiments reported in this article were designed to test some hypotheses generated on the basis of cognitive load theory (see Sweller, 1999, and Sweller, van Merrienboer, & Paas, 1998, for a recent review of the theoretical model). Central to the theory is the notion that working memory limitations should be a major consideration when designing instruction. Although working memory considerations are often overlooked, storage and processing limita

Rapid Dynamic Assessment of Expertise to Improve the Efficiency of Adaptive E-learning

In this article we suggest a method of evaluating learner experties based on assessment of the content of working memory and the extent to which cognitive load has been reduced by knowledge retrieved from long-term memory. The method was tested in an experiment with an elementary algebra tutor using a yoked control design. In the learner-adapted experimental group, instruction was dynamically tailored to changing levels of expertise using rapid tests of knowledge combined with measures of cognitive load. In the nonadapted control group, each learner was exposed to exactly the same instructional procedures as those experienced by the learners yoked participant. The experimental group demonstrated higher knowledge and cognitive efficiency gains than the control group.

The Redundancy Principle in Multimedia Learning

Abstract The redundancy principle suggests that redundant material interferes with rather than facilitates learning. Redundancy occurs when the same information is presented in multiple forms or is unnecessarily elaborated. In this chapter, the long, but until recently unknown, history of the principle is traced. In addition, an explanation of the principle using cognitive load theory is provided. The theory suggests that coordinating redundant information with essential information increases working memory load, which interferes with the transfer of information to long-term memory. Eliminating redundant information eliminates the requirement to coordinate multiple sources of information. Accordingly, instructional designs that eliminate redundant material can be superior to those that include redundancy. Introduction The history of the redundancy effect or principle is a history of academic amnesia. The effect has been discovered, forgotten, and rediscovered many times over many decades. This unusual history probably has two related causes: first, the effect is seen as counterintuitive by many researchers and practitioners and second, until recently, there has not been a clear theoretical explanation to place it into context. As a consequence of these two factors, demonstrations of the effect have tended to be treated as isolated peculiarities unconnected to any mainstream work. Memories of each demonstration have faded with the passage of time until the next demonstration has appeared. Worse, each demonstration has tended to be unconnected to the previous one. Hopefully, current explanations of the effect can alter this lamentable state of affairs.

Measuring knowledge to optimize cognitive load factors during instruction

The expertise reversal effect occurs when a learning procedure that is effective for novices becomes ineffective for more knowledgeable learners. The authors consider how to match instructional presentations to levels of learner knowledge. Experiments 1–2 were designed to develop a schema-based rapid method of measuring learners’ knowledge in a specific area. Experimental data using algebra and geometry materials for students in Grades 9 –10 indicated a highly significant correlation (up to .92) between performance on the rapid measure and traditional measures of knowledge, with test times reduced by factors of 4.9 and 2.5, respectively. Experiments 3– 4 used this method to monitor learners’ cognitive performance to determine which instructional design should be used for given levels of expertise. The expertise reversal effect (see Kalyuga, Ayres, Chandler, & Sweller, 2003) occurs when an instructional procedure that is relatively effective for novices becomes ineffective for more knowledgeable learners. A consequence of the effect is that an instructor must be able to accurately estimate the knowledge levels of learners to determine an appropriate instructional design for them. Frequently, knowledge levels of learners need to be assessed and monitored continuously during instructional episodes to dynamically determine the design of further instruction. Accordingly, it is critical to have a simple, rapid measure of expertise, especially in computer- and Web-based learning. Current measurement and test procedures may not be adequate for this purpose. The aim of the current work was to devise a rapid test of levels of expertise based on our knowledge of human cognitive architecture and then to use the test as a means of determining instructional procedures. The expertise reversal effect is an example of an aptitude– treatment interaction (e.g., see Cronbach & Snow, 1977; Lohman, 1986; Snow, 1989) or, more specifically, a disordinal interaction between person characteristics and educational treatment such that if instructional design A is superior to B for novices, B is superior to A for experts. In our research, the expertise reversal effect was derived from longitudinal studies of the effectiveness of different instructional formats and procedures with changing levels of learner expertise and explained using cognitive load theory (see Paas, Renkl, & Sweller, 2003; Sweller, 1999; and Sweller, Van Merrienboer, & Paas, 1998, for reviews), a theory based on the assumption that the processing limitations of working memory might be a major factor influencing the effectiveness of instructional presentations. Working memory capacity is overloaded if

When redundant on-screen text in multimedia technical instruction can interfere with learning.

It is frequently assumed that presenting the same material in written and spoken form benefits learning and understanding. The present work provides a theoretical justification based on cognitive load theory, and empirical evidence based on controlled experiments, that this assumption can be incorrect. From a theoretical perspective, it is suggested that if learners are required to coordinate and simultaneously process redundant material such as written and spoken text, an excessive working memory load is generated. Three experiments involving a group of 25 technical apprentices compared the effects of simultaneously presenting the same written and auditory textual information as opposed to either temporally separating the two modes or eliminating one of the modes. The first two experiments demonstrated that nonconcurrent presentation of auditory and visual explanations of a diagram proved superior, in terms of ratings of mental load and test scores, to a concurrent presentation of the same explanations when instruction time was constrained. The 3rd experiment demonstrated that a concurrent presentation of identical auditory and visual technical text (without the presence of diagrams) was significantly less efficient in comparison with an auditory-only text. Actual or potential applications of this research include the design and evaluation of multimedia instructional systems and audiovisual displays.

Learner experience and efficiency of instructional guidance

Interactions between levels of learner knowledge in a domain and levels of instructional guidance were studied in this investigation. Inexperienced mechanical trade apprentices were presented with one of two alternative instructional designs: a series of worked examples or a less guided exploratory-based environment allowing participants to explore the same material on their own. Two levels of task difficulty were used: (a) simple tasks with a very limited problem space with a small number of possible options to explore; and (b) complex tasks with a relatively larger problem space with numerous options to explore. Following instruction subjective mental load ratings and test performance measures were collected. There were only minimal differences between the instructional procedures on the simple tasks. For complex tasks, inexperienced trainees clearly benefited most from the worked examples procedure. This group performed significantly better with lower ratings of mental load than similar trainees who studied the exploratory procedure. When participants became more experienced in the domain, after two specifically designed training sessions, the advantage of a worked examples procedure disappeared. Thus, as the level of experience was raised, the performance of the exploratory group improved more than performance of the worked examples group. Suggestions are made for computer-based instructional procedures that take learner knowledge into account by employing the strategic use of both worked examples and exploratory-based instruction.