Paul R. Smokowski

Multilevel risk factors and developmental assets for internalizing symptoms and self-esteem in disadvantaged adolescents: Modeling longitudinal trajectories from the Rural Adaptation Project

The current study filled significant gaps in our knowledge of developmental psychopathology by examining the influence of multilevel risk factors and developmental assets on longitudinal trajectories of internalizing symptoms and self-esteem in an exceptionally culturally diverse sample of rural adolescents. Integrating ecological and social capital theories, we explored if positive microsystem transactions are associated with self-esteem while negative microsystem transactions increase the chances of internalizing problems. Data came from the Rural Adaptation Project, a 5-year longitudinal panel study of more than 4,000 middle school students from 28 public schools in two rural, disadvantaged counties in North Carolina. Three-level hierarchical linear modeling models were estimated to predict internalizing symptoms (e.g., depression, anxiety) and self-esteem. Relative to other students, risk for internalizing problems and low self-esteem was elevated for aggressive adolescents, students who were hassled or bullied at school, and those who were rejected by peers or in conflict with their parents. Internalizing problems were also more common among adolescents from socioeconomically disadvantaged families and neighborhoods, among those in schools with more suspensions, in students who reported being pressured by peers, and in youth who required more teacher support. It is likely that these experiences left adolescents disengaged from developing social capital from ecological microsystems (e.g., family, school, peers). On the positive side, support from parents and friends and optimism about the future were key assets associated with lower internalizing symptoms and higher self-esteem. Self-esteem was also positively related to religious orientation, school satisfaction, and future optimism. These variables show active engagement with ecological microsystems. The implications and limitations were discussed.

Family dynamics and aggressive behavior in Latino adolescents

Objectives: Despite high prevalence rates and evidence that acculturation is associated with adolescent behavioral and mental health in Latino youth, little research has focused on aggressive behavior for this population. The aim of the current study was to fill this research gap by examining the influence of several aspects of family functioning, including parent–adolescent conflict, parent worry, and parent marital adjustment, on aggression among Latino adolescents. Method: Data come from the Latino Acculturation and Health Project (LAHP), a longitudinal investigation of acculturation in Latino families in North Carolina and Arizona. Hierarchical linear modeling was used to estimate a longitudinal rater effects model of adolescent aggression as reported by 258 Latino adolescents each paired with 1 parent for a total of 516 participants across 4 time points over a span of 18 months. Results: Results indicated a general decline in aggression over the study window. In addition, parent–adolescent conflict and parent worry predicted higher adolescent aggression whereas parent marital adjustment predicted lower adolescent aggression. Conclusions: The salience of family risk factors for aggression among Latino adolescents is discussed.

Addressing Barriers to Recruitment and Retention in the Implementation of Parenting Programs: Lessons Learned for Effective Program Delivery in Rural and Urban Areas

Research has demonstrated the effectiveness of family-based programs for reducing adolescent risk behaviors and promoting adolescent health; however, parent engagement, specifically in terms of recruitment and retention, remains a consistent challenge. Recruitment rates for family-based prevention programs range from 3 to 35%, while, on average, 28% of caregivers drop out before program completion. Thus, engagement of parents in prevention programming is of utmost concern to ensure families and youth benefit from implementation of family-based programs. In this manuscript, two Centers for Disease Control and Prevention-funded projects share their experiences with engagement of parents in violence prevention programs. Problems related to parent engagement are reviewed, as are structural, attitudinal, and interpersonal barriers specific to recruitment and retention. Examples of successful implementation strategies identified across urban and rural sites are also analyzed and lessons learned are provided.

Cumulative Bullying Experiences, Adolescent Behavioral and Mental Health, and Academic Achievement: An Integrative Model of Perpetration, Victimization, and Bystander Behavior

Bullying is often ongoing during middle- and high-school. However, limited research has examined how cumulative experiences of victimization, perpetration, and bystander behavior impact adolescent behavioral and mental health and academic achievement outcomes at the end of high school. The current study used a sample of over 8000 middle- and high-school students (51% female; mean age 12.5 years) from the Rural Adaptation Project in North Carolina to investigate how cumulative experiences as a bullying victim and perpetrator over 5 years, and cumulative experiences of bystander behavior over 2 years impacted students’ aggression, internalizing symptoms, academic achievement, self-esteem, and future optimism. Following multiple imputation, analysis included a Structural Equation Model with excellent model fit. Findings indicate that cumulative bullying victimization was positively associated with aggression and internalizing symptoms, and negatively associated with self-esteem and future optimism. Cumulative bullying perpetration was positively associated with aggression and negatively associated with future optimism. Cumulative negative bystander behavior was positively associated with aggression and internalizing symptoms and negatively associated with academic achievement and future optimism. Cumulative prosocial bystander behavior was positively associated with internalizing symptoms, academic achievement, self-esteem, and future optimism. This integrative model brings together bullying dynamics to provide a comprehensive picture of implications for adolescent behavioral and mental health and academic achievement.

Entre Dos Mundos/Between Two Worlds: Using the Acculturation Spectrogram in Psychodrama Intervention for Promoting Biculturalism in Immigrant Families

Many immigrants experience acculturation stress, which arises from the difficulties and conflicts immigrants face as they adjust to a new culture. Without the support of prevention and intervention services, acculturation stress can result in an increased risk for aggressive behavior and mental health problems. Entre Dos Mundos/Between Two Worlds is an acculturation-based intervention that uses psychodrama, sociodrama, and sociometric techniques to decrease acculturation stress among Latino immigrant adolescents and their parents. An example of an Entre Dos Mundos group session presented in this article illustrates the application of psychodrama and sociometric techniques and discusses their utility in decreasing acculturation stress and promoting biculturalism.

Measuring Adolescent Violent Behavior Across Groups Assessing Measurement Invariance of the Violent Behavior Checklist–Modified

Measures of violent behavior are often assumed to function identically across different groups (e.g., gender, race/ethnicity). However, failure to verify measurement invariance can lead to biased cross-group comparisons. The current study examines the measurement invariance of the Violent Behavior Checklist–Modified across genders and race/ethnicities. Using multiple group confirmatory factor analysis, configural and metric invariance are assessed in a sample of racially/ethnically diverse middle and high school students (N = 4,128) in two rural counties. Results indicate that the Violent Behavior Checklist–Modified has partial measurement invariance across genders and race/ethnicities. Specifically, four out of six items were non-invariant across genders, while one out of six items was non-invariant across race/ethnicities. Findings suggest that the latent factor of violence may be qualitatively different across males and females. Implications are discussed.