Paulina L. González-Gómez

Baseline corticosterone and stress response in the Thorn-tailed Rayadito (Aphrastura spinicauda) along a latitudinal gradient.

Glucocorticoids are essential for life and their secretion is regulated by the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis (HPA). The HPA axis is often divided into two components: baseline glucocorticoids levels and stress response glucocorticoids levels, which are affected by changes in ambient temperature and productivity among others factors. An approximation to evaluate how a species copes with these changes is to evaluate differences of this hormone amongst populations of the same species that inhabit places ideally presenting all the possible combinations of temperature and productivity. We aimed to evaluate whether environmental temperature or productivity, represent challenges in terms of stress in the Thorn-tailed Rayadito (Aphrastura spinicauda). We examined circulating baseline levels of CORT and stress responses from three populations, covering the whole geographic distribution of the species across large gradients in weather conditions. If low temperature influences baseline CORT levels, we expect higher levels of this hormone in the southernmost population (higher latitude). However, if productivity is the factor that influences baseline CORT levels, we expect the contrary pattern, that is, lower values of this hormone in the southernmost population (more productive environment). We observed that baseline CORT levels presented lower values in the southernmost population, supporting the environmental productivity hypothesis. Secondly, we tested the hypothesis that individuals breeding at higher latitudes should have a lower stress response than individuals breeding at lower latitudes. Contrary to our expectations, we found that stress response did not vary among populations in any of the three years. We concluded that low environmental temperatures did not represent a stress situation for the Thorn-tailed Rayadito if food abundance was sufficient to support energetic demands.

Flexibility of Foraging Behavior in Hummingbirds: The Role of Energy Constraints and Cognitive Abilities

ABSTRACT. We assessed how individual foraging preferences and cognitive performance affect foraging bout interval and the flexibility of foraging behavior in the nectarivorous Green-backed Firecrown (Sephanoides sephaniodes). Our field experiment evaluated the ability of these hummingbirds to recall nectar-renewal rates in two groups of artificial flowers with the same nectar concentration in the absence of visual cues. In a second experiment, we assessed their ability to remember differences in nectar quality combined with different nectar-renewal intervals, given artificial flowers with identical visual cues. Our results indicate that Green-backed Firecrowns adjusted their foraging intervals according to nectar-renewal rates and, furthermore, that birds were able to recall nectar concentration as well as nectar-renewal rate. Individual differences in memory performance resulted in differences in energy intake. These results strongly suggest that individual preferences and individual cognitive performance could play a central role in energy intake and, therefore, in the probability of survival.

The impact of exposure to a novel female on symptoms of infection and on the reproductive axis.

Background/Aim: Sickness behaviors are the behavioral alterations animals exhibit during the course of an infection, often accompanied by reduced reproductive activity. Adopting sickness behaviors may aid in overcoming the infection, by diverting energy from routine activities towards enhancement of the immune system. Nonetheless, sickness behaviors are plastic, being influenced by specific environmental and social circumstances. Here, we tested whether the presentation of a novel female to males suffering from a simulated infection could impact the behavioral effects of sickness, the reproductive axis, or both. Methods: Male zebra finches were housed in isolation and injected intramuscularly with lipopolysaccharide or saline. Behaviors were recorded before (3 h before injection) and after (3.5 h after injection) addition of a novel female to the cage for 30 min. Four hours after injection, we collected the brain and testis for the analysis of important reproductive axis modulators, gonadotropin-releasing hormone, and gonadotropin-inhibitory hormone, and to quantify gene expression of a proinflammatory cytokine involved in the regulation of sickness behaviors [interleukin (IL)-1β]. Testosterone was quantified in the plasma. Results: The presence of a novel female diminished sickness behaviors and induced alterations in the reproductive axis within 30 min, with no associated changes in brain gene expression of IL-1β. Social environment itself altered brain gene expression of IL-1β. Conclusions: Male zebra finches prioritize the opportunity to mate versus investment in recovery from an infection, as determined by reduced expression of sickness behaviors when a potential mate was present. The behavioral effects of IL-1β appear to be context dependent in this species.

Breaking down seasonality: androgen modulation and stress response in a highly stable environment.

Previous studies show that most birds inhabiting temperate regions have well defined life history stages, and they modulate the production of testosterone (T) and corticosterone (CORT) in response to changes in seasonality. In this study we aimed to examine baseline and stress-induced levels of CORT and circulating T in relation with life history stages in the rufous-collared sparrow, Zonotrichia capensis. We carried out this study for a year in a population inhabiting riparian habitats in the Atacama Desert in Chile, one of the most climatically stable and driest places in the world. This environment shows minimal yearly change in average temperature and precipitation is virtually zero. We found individuals breeding, molting and overlapping breeding and molt year round, although most individuals were molting during March and in breeding condition during October. T levels were not related to individual breeding condition, and at population level they were not significantly different across sampling months. Baseline levels of CORT did not vary across the year. Stress-induced levels of CORT were suppressed during March when most of the birds were molting. This phenomenon was also observed in birds not molting during this period suggesting a mechanism other than molt in determining the stress-response suppression. Our results strongly suggest that in this study site, long-term extremely stable conditions could have relaxed the selective pressures over the timing of life history stages which was evidenced by the breeding and molt schedules, its overlap and endocrine profiles.

Thermoregulatory cost affects territorial behavior in hummingbirds: a model and its application

A common assumption in behavioral ecology is that the valuation of a resource by consumers depends on the energetic value of the resource itself. Nevertheless, the value of a resource may be relative to the condition of the organism, which is in turn related to the abiotic conditions such as ambient temperature. We developed a theoretical model—incorporating these untested assumptions—to predict a functional relationship between territorial aggression and ambient temperature for individuals sensitive to daily variations in energy availability. We evaluated our theoretical predictions against a field experiment carried out with the hummingbird Sephanoides sephaniodes. The model predicted a quadratic relation between aggression intensity and ambient temperature. Field data were better explained by a quadratic equation than a linear function, suggesting the existence of lower and upper thresholds of temperature which determine the intensity of territorial defense. Ambient temperature affects energy expenditure for thermoregulation, and therefore, it fixes the benefit level that must be produced by the territory to pay the costs of its defense. Our findings strongly suggest that abiotic conditions can change an animal evaluation of the yield of a resource and in turn influence the behavioral strategy which it adopts.

Epaulet Size and Current Condition in Red-Winged Blackbirds: Examining a Semistatic Signal, Testosterone, Immune Function, and Parasites

Some sexually selected signals are thought to convey information about the current condition and genetic/epigenetic quality of the individual signaling, including the ability to resist parasites. However, it is unclear whether semistatic sexual signals that develop periodically and remain stable over protracted periods, such as avian breeding plumage, can relate to measures of current condition and health. We examined a semistatic signal (wing epaulet size) in male red-winged blackbirds (Agelaius phoeniceus) during the breeding season and looked for relationships between this trait and circulating testosterone (T), hematocrit, bacteria-killing ability (BKA) of the blood, and the infection status, richness, and abundance of four functional categories of parasite. We found that epaulet size was positively related to circulating levels of T and ectoparasite infections. We found no relationships between T and parasite infections. In adult males there was a negative relationship between T and BKA, whereas in yearling males there was no relationship. We found no evidence for a general reduction in immunocompetence in males with larger epaulets but rather an increase in susceptibility to specific types of parasites. Our results suggest that semistatic signals can be linked to measures of current condition, and we postulate that these relationships are modulated via activity levels related to breeding-season activities.

A blurring of life-history lines: Immune function, molt and reproduction in a highly stable environment

Rufous-collared sparrows (Zonotrichia capensis peruviensis) from valleys in the Atacama Desert of Chile, live in an extremely stable environment, and exhibit overlap in molt and reproduction, with valley-specific differences in the proportion of birds engaged in both. To better understand the mechanistic pathways underlying the timing of life-history transitions, we examined the relationships among baseline and stress-induced levels of corticosterone (CORT), testosterone, and bacteria-killing ability of the blood plasma (BKA), as well as haemosporidian parasite infections and the genetic structure of two groups of sparrows from separate valleys over the course of a year. Birds neither molting nor breeding had the lowest BKA, but there were no differences among the other three categories of molt-reproductive stage. BKA varied over the year, with birds in May/June exhibiting significantly lower levels of BKA than the rest of the year. We also documented differences in the direction of the relationship between CORT and BKA at different times during the year. The direction of these relationships coincides with some trends in molt and reproductive stage, but differs enough to indicate that these birds exhibit individual-level plasticity, or population-level variability, in coordinating hypothalamo-pituitary-adrenal axis activity with life-history stage. We found weak preliminary evidence for genetic differentiation between the two populations, but not enough to indicate genetic isolation. No birds were infected with haemosporidia, which may be indicative of reduced parasite pressure in deserts. The data suggest that these birds may not trade off among different life-history components, but rather are able to invest in multiple life-history components based on their condition.

Aggression, body condition, and seasonal changes in sex-steroids in four hummingbird species

AbstractHummingbirds present a unique combination between extremely high life costs and a number of efficient adaptations to fuel these demands. In addition to cognitive abilities, territorial hummingbirds display aggressive behaviors that allow for access to better food resources. In year-round territorial species, male–male territorial aggression is similar between breeding and non-breeding seasons; however, the endocrine mechanisms underlying control of territoriality during these distinct seasonal periods may differ. In many species, testosterone (T) triggers increased aggression during the breeding season whereas territoriality in the non-breeding season can be regulated by circulating the biologically inert sex steroid precursor dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA) and converting it to T in target tissues. The seasonal hormonal regulation of hummingbird territorial behavior has heretofore been unknown. Our goal was to assess seasonal changes in sex steroids, territorial aggression levels, and body condition during reproductive and non-reproductive seasons in hummingbirds. To validate the use of cloacal fluid (CF) for the study of sex steroids, steroid levels in plasma and CF were correlated in Sephanoides sephaniodes. During the reproductive season, Calypte. anna,Archilochus alexandri, and Selasphorus rufus males showed high levels of T that were positively correlated with aggression, but the relationship between T and body condition was not consistent across species. As expected, T levels in females were significantly lower than in males in all seasons, however still detectable. During the non-reproductive season, CF DHEA of Calypte anna was high and positively correlated with aggressive behaviors and body condition. Our results suggest that hummingbirds display aggressive behaviors that could be linked to different hormones during the breeding and non-breeding seasons.ZusammenfassungAggressionsverhalten, Körperkondition und jahreszeitliche Schwankungen der Sexualsteroidspiegel bei vier Kolibriarten Kolibris verbinden in einzigartiger Weise eine extrem kostspielige Lebensweise mit einer Reihe von Anpassungsleistungen, um ihren Energiebedarf effizient zu decken. Zusätzlich zu ihren kognitiven Fähigkeiten verfügen territoriale Kolibris über aggressive Verhaltensweisen, die ihnen den Zugang zu besseren Nahrungsquellen sichern. Bei Arten, die ganzjährig Reviere verteidigen, ist die territoriale Aggression zwischen Männchen zur Brutzeit ähnlich wie außerhalb; allerdings können sich die der Steuerung der Territorialität zugrunde liegenden endokrinen Mechanismen während dieser jahreszeitlich klar getrennten Zeiträume unterscheiden. Bei vielen Arten löst Testosteron (T) eine Zunahme des Aggressionsverhaltens während der Brutsaison aus, wohingegen die Territorialität außerhalb der Brutzeit durch den Einsatz des biologisch inerten Sexualsteroid-Vorläufers Dehydroepiandrosteron (DHEA) reguliert werden kann, welcher dann im Zielgewebe in T umgewandelt wird. Die jahreszeitliche hormonelle Steuerung des Territorialverhaltens bei Kolibris war bislang unbekannt. Unser Ziel war es, jahreszeitliche Schwankungen des Spiegels von Sexualsteroiden, das Ausmaß territorialer Aggression sowie die Körperkondition der Kolibris jeweils während und außerhalb der Fortpflanzungszeit zu ermitteln. Um die Eignung der Kloakenflüssigkeit (cloacal fluid, CF) für die Untersuchung von Sexualsteroiden zu testen, wurden bei Sephanoides sephaniodes die jeweiligen Steroidspiegel in Plasma und CF miteinander in Bezug gesetzt. Während der Fortpflanzungsperiode zeigten Männchen von C. anna, Archilochus alexandri und Selasphorus rufus jeweils hohe T-Spiegel, welche positiv mit dem Aggressionsverhalten korrelierten; das Verhältnis zwischen T und der Körperkondition stimmte jedoch nicht bei allen Arten überein. Erwartungsgemäß lagen die T-Spiegel bei den Weibchen zu allen Jahreszeiten signifikant niedriger als bei den Männchen, waren aber trotzdem nachweislich vorhanden. Außerhalb der Fortpflanzungszeit lag der CF-Wert für DHEA bei Calypte anna hoch und korrelierte positiv mit dem Aggressionsverhalten und der Körperkondition. Unsere Ergebnisse legen nahe, dass die von Kolibris gezeigten aggressiven Verhaltensweisen zur Brutzeit beziehungsweise außerhalb dieser an verschiedene Hormone gekoppelt sein könnten.

Does Environmental Heterogeneity Promote Cognitive Abilities

In the context of global change the possible loss of biodiversity has been identified as a major concern. Biodiversity could be seriously threatened as a direct consequence of changes in availability of food, changing thermal conditions, and loss and fragmentation of habitat. Considering the magnitude of global change, an understanding of the mechanisms involved in coping with a changing environment is urgent. We explore the hypothesis that species and individuals experiencing highly variable environments are more likely to develop a wider range of responses to handle the different and unpredictable conditions imposed by global change. In the case of vertebrates, the responses to the challenges imposed by unpredictable perturbations ultimately are linked to cognitive abilities allowing the solving of problems, and the maximization of energy intake. Our models were hummingbirds, which offer a particularly compelling group in which to examine the functional and mechanistic links between behavioral and energetic strategies in individuals experiencing different degrees of social and environmental heterogeneity.

Spatial memory is as important as weapon and body size for territorial ownership in a lekking hummingbird

Advanced cognitive abilities have long been hypothesized to be important in mating. Yet, most work on sexual selection has focused on morphological traits and its relevance for cognitive evolution is poorly understood. We studied the spatial memory of lekking long-billed hermits (Phaethornis longirostris) and evaluated its role in lek territory ownership, the magnitude of its effect compared to phenotypic traits expected to influence sexual selection, and whether its variation is indicated in the structure of mating vocal signal. Spatial memory (the ability to recall the position of a rewarding feeder) was compared between “territorial” and “floater” males. Interestingly, although spatial memory and body size both positively affected the probability of lek territory ownership, our results suggest a stronger effect of spatial memory. Bill tip length (used as weapon in agonistic interactions) also showed a positive but smaller effect. Load lifting during vertical flight, a measure of physical performance relevant to agonistic interactions, had no effect on territory ownership. Finally, both body size and spatial memory were indicated in the structure of male song: body size negatively correlated with song lowest frequency, while spatial memory positively predicted song consistency. Together, our findings lend support for cognition as a sexual selection target.