Peipei Lu

Activation of aryl hydrocarbon receptor dissociates fatty liver from insulin resistance by inducing fibroblast growth factor 21

The aryl hydrocarbon receptor (AHR), also known as the dioxin receptor, was originally characterized as a xenobiotic receptor that senses xenotoxicants. We investigated the endobiotic and hepatic role of AHR in fatty liver and energy metabolism and identified the endocrine factor that mediates the metabolic function of AHR. Wild‐type and liver‐specific constitutively activated human AHR transgenic mice were used to investigate the role of AHR in fatty liver and energy homeostasis. Adenovirus expressing short hairpin RNA targeting fibroblast growth factor 21 (FGF21) were used to determine the involvement of FGF21 in the metabolic effect of AHR. We showed that, despite their severe fatty liver, the transgenic mice were protected from diet‐induced obesity and type 2 diabetes. We identified the endocrine hormone FGF21 as a mediator for the metabolic benefit of AHR and established FGF21 as a direct transcriptional target of AHR. Interestingly, the transactivation of FGF21 by AHR contributed to both hepatic steatosis and systemic insulin hypersensitivity, both of which were largely abolished upon FGF21 knockdown. Conclusions: The AHR‐FGF21 endocrine signaling pathway establishes AHR as a pivotal environmental modifier that integrates signals from chemical exposure in the regulation of lipid and energy metabolism. (Hepatology 2015;61:1908–1919)

Oestrogen sulfotransferase ablation sensitizes mice to sepsis

Sepsis is the hosts deleterious systemic inflammatory response to microbial infections. Here we report an essential role for the estrogen sulfotransferase (EST or SULT1E1), a conjugating enzyme that sulfonates and deactivates estrogens, in sepsis response. Both the cecal ligation and puncture (CLP) and lipopolysacharide (LPS) models of sepsis induce the expression of EST and compromise the activity of estrogen, an anti-inflammatory hormone. Surprisingly, EST ablation sensitizes mice to sepsis-induced death. Mechanistically, EST ablation attenuates sepsis-induced inflammatory responses due to compromised estrogen deactivation, leading to increased sepsis lethality. In contrast, transgenic overexpression of EST promotes estrogen deactivation and sensitizes mice to CLP-induced inflammatory response. The induction of EST by sepsis is NF-κB dependent and EST is a NF-κB target gene. The reciprocal regulation of inflammation and EST may represent a yet to be explored mechanism of endocrine regulation of inflammation, which has an impact on the clinical outcome of sepsis.

Hepatic overexpression of CD36 improves glycogen homeostasis and attenuates high-fat diet induced hepatic steatosis and insulin resistance

ABSTRACT The common complications in obesity and type 2 diabetes include hepatic steatosis and disruption of glucose-glycogen homeostasis, leading to hyperglycemia. Fatty acid translocase (FAT/CD36), whose expression is inducible in obesity, is known for its function in fatty acid uptake. Previous work by us and others suggested that CD36 plays an important role in hepatic lipid homeostasis, but the results have been conflicting and the mechanisms were not well understood. In this study, by using CD36-overexpressing transgenic (CD36Tg) mice, we uncovered a surprising function of CD36 in regulating glycogen homeostasis. Overexpression of CD36 promoted glycogen synthesis, and as a result, CD36Tg mice were protected from fasting hypoglycemia. When challenged with a high-fat diet (HFD), CD36Tg mice showed unexpected attenuation of hepatic steatosis, increased very low-density lipoprotein (VLDL) secretion, and improved glucose tolerance and insulin sensitivity. The HFD-fed CD36Tg mice also showed decreased levels of proinflammatory hepatic prostaglandins and 20-hydroxyeicosatetraenoic acid (20-HETE), a potent vasoconstrictive and proinflammatory arachidonic acid metabolite. We propose that CD36 functions as a protective metabolic sensor in the liver under lipid overload and metabolic stress. CD36 may be explored as a valuable therapeutic target for the management of metabolic syndrome.

Chronic Activation of FXR in Transgenic Mice Caused Perinatal Toxicity and Sensitized Mice to Cholesterol Toxicity

The nuclear receptor farnesoid X receptor (FXR) (nuclear receptor subfamily 1, group H, member 4, or NR1H4) is highly expressed in the liver and intestine. Previous reports have suggested beneficial functions of FXR in the homeostasis of bile acids, lipids, and glucose, as well as in promoting liver regeneration and inhibiting carcinogenesis. To investigate the effect of chronic FXR activation in vivo, we generated transgenic mice that conditionally and tissue specifically express the activated form of FXR in the liver and intestine. Unexpectedly, the transgenic mice showed several intriguing phenotypes, including partial neonatal lethality, growth retardation, and spontaneous liver toxicity. The transgenic mice also displayed heightened sensitivity to a high-cholesterol diet-induced hepatotoxicity but resistance to the gallstone formation. The phenotypes were transgene specific, because they were abolished upon treatment with doxycycline to silence the transgene expression. The perinatal toxicity, which can be rescued by a maternal vitamin supplement, may have resulted from vitamin deficiency due to low biliary bile acid output as a consequence of inhibition of bile acid formation. Our results also suggested that the fibroblast growth factor-inducible immediate-early response protein 14 (Fn14), a member of the proinflammatory TNF family, is a FXR-responsive gene. However, the contribution of Fn14 induction in the perinatal toxic phenotype of the transgenic mice remains to be defined. Because FXR is being explored as a therapeutic target, our results suggested that a chronic activation of this nuclear receptor may have an unintended side effect especially during the perinatal stage.

Activation of Aryl Hydrocarbon Receptor Dissociates Fatty Liver from Insulin Resistance by Inducing FGF21

The aryl hydrocarbon receptor (AHR), also known as the dioxin receptor, was originally characterized as a xenobiotic receptor that senses xenotoxicants. We investigated the endobiotic and hepatic role of AHR in fatty liver and energy metabolism and identified the endocrine factor that mediates the metabolic function of AHR. Wild‐type and liver‐specific constitutively activated human AHR transgenic mice were used to investigate the role of AHR in fatty liver and energy homeostasis. Adenovirus expressing short hairpin RNA targeting fibroblast growth factor 21 (FGF21) were used to determine the involvement of FGF21 in the metabolic effect of AHR. We showed that, despite their severe fatty liver, the transgenic mice were protected from diet‐induced obesity and type 2 diabetes. We identified the endocrine hormone FGF21 as a mediator for the metabolic benefit of AHR and established FGF21 as a direct transcriptional target of AHR. Interestingly, the transactivation of FGF21 by AHR contributed to both hepatic steatosis and systemic insulin hypersensitivity, both of which were largely abolished upon FGF21 knockdown. Conclusions: The AHR‐FGF21 endocrine signaling pathway establishes AHR as a pivotal environmental modifier that integrates signals from chemical exposure in the regulation of lipid and energy metabolism. (Hepatology 2015;61:1908–1919)

Constitutive Activation of the Human Aryl Hydrocarbon Receptor in Mice Promotes Hepatocarcinogenesis Independent of Its Coactivator Gadd45b

2,3,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin (TCDD), or dioxin, is a potent liver cancer promoter through its sustained activation of the aryl hydrocarbon receptor (Ahr) in rodents. However, the carcinogenic effect of TCDD and AHR in humans has been controversial. It has been suggested that the inter-species difference in the carcinogenic activity of AhR is largely due to different ligand affinity in that TCDD has a 10-fold lower affinity for the human AHR compared with the mouse Ahr. It remains unclear whether the activation of human AHR is sufficient to promote hepatocellular carcinogenesis. The goal of this study is to clarify whether activation of human AHR can promote hepatocarcinogenesis. Here we reported the oncogenic activity of human AHR in promoting hepatocellular carcinogenesis. Constitutive activation of the human AHR in transgenic mice was as efficient as its mouse counterpart in promoting diethylnitrosamine (DEN)-initiated hepatocellular carcinogenesis. The growth arrest and DNA damage-inducible gene 45 β (Gadd45b), a signaling molecule inducible by external stress and UV irradiation, is highly induced upon AHR activation. Further analysis revealed that Gadd45b is a novel AHR target gene and a transcriptional coactivator of AHR. Interestingly, ablation of Gadd45b in mice did not abolish the tumor promoting effects of the human AHR. Collectively, our findings suggested that constitutive activation of human AHR was sufficient to promote hepatocarcinogenesis.

Activation of aryl hydrocarbon receptor dissociates fatty liver from insulin resistance by inducing fibroblast growth factor 21: STEATOHEPATITIS/METABOLIC LIVER DISEASE

The aryl hydrocarbon receptor (AHR), also known as the dioxin receptor, was originally characterized as a xenobiotic receptor that senses xenotoxicants. We investigated the endobiotic and hepatic role of AHR in fatty liver and energy metabolism and identified the endocrine factor that mediates the metabolic function of AHR. Wild‐type and liver‐specific constitutively activated human AHR transgenic mice were used to investigate the role of AHR in fatty liver and energy homeostasis. Adenovirus expressing short hairpin RNA targeting fibroblast growth factor 21 (FGF21) were used to determine the involvement of FGF21 in the metabolic effect of AHR. We showed that, despite their severe fatty liver, the transgenic mice were protected from diet‐induced obesity and type 2 diabetes. We identified the endocrine hormone FGF21 as a mediator for the metabolic benefit of AHR and established FGF21 as a direct transcriptional target of AHR. Interestingly, the transactivation of FGF21 by AHR contributed to both hepatic steatosis and systemic insulin hypersensitivity, both of which were largely abolished upon FGF21 knockdown. Conclusions: The AHR‐FGF21 endocrine signaling pathway establishes AHR as a pivotal environmental modifier that integrates signals from chemical exposure in the regulation of lipid and energy metabolism. (Hepatology 2015;61:1908–1919)

Reply to Correspondence HEP-15-1008 "AHR-FGF21 dissociation of fatty liver from insulin resistance: A timely matter?"

An intricate relationship has been shown between the clock gene machinery and the AHR signaling pathway. The AHR/ARNT protein and the circadian protein BMAL1/ARNTL share structural similarities, and AHR influences the rhythmicity of biological clocks, also through its interaction with BMAL1, the activity of which is altered in AHR knockout mice. The AHR has no effects on the biological clock in the absence of exogenous agonist, whereas AHR activation alters circadian rhythmicity and clock gene expression. In turn, liver-produced FGF21 can regulate metabolism and circadian behavior by acting on the nervous system. It is plausible that the authors missed interpreting their intriguing mouse phenotype as due to a disruption of the circadian homeostasis as a result of a continuous, timedisconnected AHR/FGF21 activation. The elegant doxycycline-inducible transgenic model of Lu et al. would be useful to exploit for time window–restricted experiments of AHR/FGF21 activation. At the patient level, it would be crucial to connect these molecular studies to lifestyle patterns and eventually to chronotherapy based on nontoxic AHR agonists.