Peter E. Hildebrand

Combining disciplines in rapid appraisal: The Sondeo approach

Abstract Multidisciplinary agricultural research teams can augment information on agricultural technology needs. In Guatemala a reconnaissance survey team of ten, equally split between socio-economists and technologists, has been used to assess farmer constraints and technology needs in advance of agricultural research. Quantified information and questionnaires are not required and the survey lasts only one week. The team investigated farmer conditions in pairs made up of a social scientist and a natural scientist. On each of four days the pairing changes. Daily post-survey team discussions are regarded as essential. Each member of the team prepares a report and these are finally amalgamated into one joint report. Experience has shown that combined disciplines can, if well managed, produce incisive and efficient diagnoses of rural conditions and needs and educate the participants in multidisciplinary thinking.

Modeling changes in farming systems with the adoption of improved fallows in southern Mali

Agricultural production in the Koutiala region, southern Mali, is based on cash sources (cotton and groundnut), cereal sources (maize, sorghum, millet), and a store of wealth (livestock). In these low-input farming systems, crop production is seriously constrained by soil fertility decline. Research is being conducted in the region to investigate the potential of improved fallows planted to leguminous agroforestry tree species to improve soil fertility and crop production. This paper examines the potential for the adoption of this technology on diAerent household groups using linear programming-based modeling. The model revealed that an improved fallow would be an interesting venture only if fodder has a market value and if maize yields equal to or higher than the regional average yield of 2500 kg ha ˇ1 can be achieved. Improved fallows are not financially attractive to farmers if they do not produce benefits other than soil fertility improvement measured in terms of crop yield. Any subsidy program which would prevent farmers from cutting the fodder, as secondary output before the end of the planned fallow length, would not have adoption potentials. A special fallow installation loan program, similar to the one that cotton enjoys, would make the venture viable. # 2000 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved.

Extending technologies among small-scale farmers in Meru, Kenya: Ingredients for success in farmer groups

Agricultural extension is evolving worldwide, and there is much emphasis today on community-based mechanisms of dissemination in order to bring sustainable change. The goal of this study was to examine the factors that make farmer groups successful in dissemination of information and technologies. A mixed-methods, multiple-stage approach was used to obtain data, using participant observation, documentary analysis, semi-structured interviews, social mapping, and structured questionnaires. Dairy-goat farmer groups (n = 46) and individual farmers (n = 88) were interviewed. Factors that were associated with group success in dissemination included member participation, degree of jealousy within the group, homogeneity of members, group capacity, number of linkages and type of group (project-supported versus non-supported). Some interventions that may increase the success of groups in dissemination include capacity-building, increasing linkages with other extension stakeholders, providing an enabling environment for groups to form, using established groups (as compared to forming new groups), and encouraging groups to form around common interests rather than for other reasons.

Sustainability of bean production systems on steep lands in Costa Rica

Abstract Responding to changes in rural-urban linkages and government policies, bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) production systems in Costa Rica are undergoing transitions. Impacts of changes in bean production systems on environmental and economic sustainability were analysed at the field, farm and policy levels. A combination of interviews, agronomic surveys, on-farm experiments, and secondary information was used. Changes in agronomic and economic conditions over time were assessed by conducting agronomic surveys and experiments on farms representing a range of land-use intensities. Trade-offs between productivity and stability were quantified using Modified Stability Analysis. The adoption of land and agrochemical-intensive methods by resource-poor farmers cultivating steep lands resulted in decreased environmented and economic sustainability. Farmers with adequate resources were able to maintain economic viability by transferring land out of beans and into other commodities, particularly cattle. However, this shift in resource use decreased social equity by decreasing farm labour opportunities for smallholders and landless farmers and diminishing land available for tenants. These studies indicate that the impact of technology introduction on farming system sustainability can be assessed effectively by conducting integrated socioeconomic and agronomic analyses across farms representing various land-use practices and intensities.

Farming systems research for agroforestry extension

Farming systems research and extension (FSRE), as used by the global Association for Farming Systems Research-Extension, applies to a family of methodologies used to generate, evaluate and disseminate agricultural technologies in association with farmer participation. FSRE shares many attributes with Diagnosis and Design as practiced in agroforestry. The history of FSRE is traced from 1965 to the present, showing the formalization of the methodology and its critical use in sustainable agricultural technology development. In on-farm research, a primary basis for FSRE, research and extension merge in practice. The definition of recommendation domains (a fundamental concept of FSRE) is based on analysis and interpretation of multi-environmental research results as evaluated by varied criteria.In this paper, we present the results of three research projects to demonstrate the nature of farmer criteria for evaluation. Modified Stability Analysis (MSA) is used to demonstrate the relationship of on-farm research to specific extension messages. Design of on-farm research to make it amenable to analysis by MSA is discussed.

Systematic learning of agricultural technologies

Abstract While technological learning has long been recognized in industrial settings, it has received little attention in agriculture. The basic idea is that technological performance improves through experience, i.e. ‘learning by doing’. In this paper learning is viewed as being of three types: informational, observational and experiential learning. The cost of learning and the complexity of the technology are identified as affecting the rate of learning. Overall community learning is seen as an important dimension in the rates of adoption and adaptation of new technologies. Research and extension efforts to increase agricultural productivity should incorporate activities to facilitate learning by researchers and extension agents as well as farmers.

Chamaedorea Palm Frond Commercialization and Certification Considered from a Smallholder Livelihood System Perspective

Chamaedorea palm frond (xate) certification has been broadly promoted throughout Mesoamerica as a means to foster the integration of forest conservation and economic development. This study examined the feasibility of xate commercialization and certification at the scale of the extractor livelihood system in an ejido in the Chinantla region of Oaxaca, Mexico. Ethnographic methods were used to collect livelihood system data. These data were used to develop an ethnographic linear program (ELP) model of extractor households to analyze the effects of palm frond management and marketing scenarios on their livelihoods. Three necessary conditions for the feasibility of certification were hypothesized: two related to extractor livelihoods and another related to market fluidity. Livelihood outcomes supported the notion that resource sustainability and economic development are not mutually exclusive, and provided support for xate certification as an intervention oriented toward the integration of these objectives. In contrast, the model revealed an unfavorable discrepancy between xate supply and the level of demand expressed by an interested buyer. This shortfall represented a substantial obstacle to the feasibility of xate certification in the community. Low demand fulfillment suggested that xate certification ultimately represents an infeasible strategy for the community, irrespective of the observed livelihood and conservation benefits. Results highlighted the importance of understanding household objectives and market context in local decisions to pursue NTFP certification. We suggest that the community’s objectives would best be served by engaging neighboring communities in a cooperative and controlled effort to augment regional supply.

Farming Systems Research: Issues in Research Strategy and Technology Design: Discussion

Byerlee, Harrington, and Winkelmann state that the highest expectations of the farming systems approach are in its problem solving role, which aims to increase productivity of farming systems by generating new technologies appropriate to farmers. They argue that because of the chronic shortage of resources in national agricultural institutions and because of the urgent need to help small farmers increase their productivity, cost effective methods that provide quick results are critical. I concur that this is how farming systems research should be viewed. But farming systems should be more than part of a dynamic research system if it is to achieve anticipated results. It must be part of a complete technological system for agriculture that includes a mass transfer mechanism. For-

Methodology for partitioning poultry producers into recommendation domains

Abstract This study simulated broiler grower conditions by incorporating environmental variation into the research design. This provided a means for partitioning growers into homogeneous production environments (recommendation domains). Also, it enabled a more accurate evaluation of experimental feed treatments and resulted in feeding recommendations appropriate to specific groups of broiler growers. Of all the variables in the environmental matrix, house temperature was the most important due to its effect on feed intake and thus weight gain. The simulation study was conducted in a broiler house with 32 pens (research domain). Each environment was a randomized complete block of four feed treatments. Broiler gain response to feed ingredients (milo and peanut meal) was used to evaluate the four isocaloric protein treatments fed in pellet form. Modified stability analysis was used to visualize the differences in the broiler gain response to treatments in ‘good’, ‘moderate’ and ‘poor’ environments, and to make feeding recommendations specific to environment or research domain. The ability to partition a broiler research domain was demonstrated and indicates that research conducted by simulating a well-characterized production system can be a practical approach to technology generation.