Peter Graeff

The impact of economic freedom on corruption: different patterns for rich and poor countries

Abstract This paper investigates the impact of various components of economic freedom on corruption. Some aspects of economic freedom appear to deter corruption while others do not. We identify a stable pattern of aspects of economic freedom influencing corruption that differs depending on whether countries are rich or poor. This implies that there is a strong relation between economic freedom and corruption. This relation depends on a countrys level of development. Contrary to expectations, we find that some types of regulation reduce corruption.

The Rationale for Consuming Cognitive Enhancement Drugs in University Students and Teachers

Cognitive enhancement (CE) is the pharmaceutical augmentation of mental abilities (e.g., learning or memory) without medical necessity. This topic has recently attracted widespread attention in scientific and social circles. However, knowledge regarding the mechanisms that underlie the decision to use CE medication is limited. To analyze these decisions, we used data from two online surveys of randomly sampled university teachers (N = 1,406) and students (N = 3,486). Each respondent evaluated one randomly selected vignette with regard to a hypothetical CE drug. We experimentally varied the characteristics of the drugs among vignettes and distributed them among respondents. In addition, the respondent’s internalization of social norms with respect to CE drug use was measured. Our results revealed that students were more willing to enhance cognitive performance via drugs than university teachers, although the overall willingness was low. The probability of side effects and their strength reduced the willingness to use CE drugs among students and university teachers, whereas higher likelihoods and magnitudes of CE increased this propensity. In addition, the internalized norm against CE drug use influenced decision making: Higher internalization decreased the willingness to use such medications. Students’ internalized norms more strongly affected CE abstinence compared with those of university teachers. Furthermore, internalized norms negatively interacted with the instrumental incentives for taking CE medication. This internalization limited the influence of and deliberation on instrumental incentives. This study is the first to provide empirical evidence regarding the importance of social norms and their influence on rational decision making with regard to CE. We identified previously undiscovered decision-making patterns concerning CE. Thus, this study provides insight into the motivators and inhibitors of CE drug use. These findings have implications for contending with CE behavior by highlighting the magnitude of potential side effects and by informing the debate regarding the ethics of CE use.

Evaluating the drivers of and obstacles to the willingness to use cognitive enhancement drugs: the influence of drug characteristics, social environment, and personal characteristics

BackgroundThe use of cognitive enhancement (CE) by means of pharmaceutical agents has been the subject of intense debate both among scientists and in the media. This study investigates several drivers of and obstacles to the willingness to use prescription drugs non-medically for augmenting brain capacity.MethodsWe conducted a web-based study among 2,877 students from randomly selected disciplines at German universities. Using a factorial survey, respondents expressed their willingness to take various hypothetical CE-drugs; the drugs were described by five experimentally varied characteristics and the social environment by three varied characteristics. Personal characteristics and demographic controls were also measured.ResultsWe found that 65.3% of the respondents staunchly refused to use CE-drugs. The results of a multivariate negative binomial regression indicated that respondents’ willingness to use CE-drugs increased if the potential drugs promised a significant augmentation of mental capacity and a high probability of achieving this augmentation. Willingness decreased when there was a high probability of side effects and a high price. Prevalent CE-drug use among peers increased willingness, whereas a social environment that strongly disapproved of these drugs decreased it. Regarding the respondents’ characteristics, pronounced academic procrastination, high cognitive test anxiety, low intrinsic motivation, low internalization of social norms against CE-drug use, and past experiences with CE-drugs increased willingness. The potential severity of side effects, social recommendations about using CE-drugs, risk preferences, and competencies had no measured effects upon willingness.ConclusionsThese findings contribute to understanding factors that influence the willingness to use CE-drugs. They support the assumption of instrumental drug use and may contribute to the development of prevention, policy, and educational strategies.

Modelling a rational choice theory of criminal action: Subjective expected utilities, norms, and interactions

Referring to classic rational choice models of criminal behaviour (Becker 1968), this paper presents an extended Subjective Expected Utility model that is more in line with the requirements of theorizing and empirical testing than former models. In our model, the decision of an actor is influenced by the expected utility of the crime and the norms that prohibit the delinquent action. It is suggested that there is an interaction between utility and norms which reflect different patterns of decision making leading to different probabilities for the occurrence of crimes. The model is tested by using survey data from Germany. Applying a new technique to uncover interaction effects reveals that in one pattern, internalized norms that label criminal action as not appropriate take effect instead of deliberation. In another pattern, the recognition that certain actions are connected to societal norms increases deliberation about costs and benefits of criminal behaviour.

Explaining the Decision to Plagiarize: An Empirical Test of the Interplay Between Rationality, Norms, and Opportunity

Plagiarism is a fraudulent behavior that infringes on the rules of universities and intellectual property rights. Rational choice theory provides a theoretical framework for explaining this deviant behavior. Our study increases knowledge of the little analyzed interrelation among the individual determinants of deviant behavior. We use panel data from a large-scale random sample of university students (N = 2,806). The expected utility of plagiarism, internalized social norms, and opportunities to plagiarize can explain the frequency of plagiarism. The significant interaction between utility and opportunity could be interpreted as a form of temptation. Promising strategies to reduce plagiarism are also discussed.

Method Bias in Comparative Research: Problems of Construct Validity as Exemplified by the Measurement of Ethnic Diversity

This study investigates indices of ethnic diversity for method effects due to differences in operationalization. It adapts the methodology of multitrait–multimethod analysis to the field of socioeconomic macro research. While approaches for checking construct validity or method bias are common in psychology and educational research, they are rarely applied in other social science disciplines such as economics and political science. We find that measures of polarization show considerable method effects which call their empirical utilization for multivariate modeling into question. We conclude that improved overall measures, which are based on a theoretical augmentation of a constructs measurement instrument, do not necessarily lead to improved results, neither on the measurement level nor for hypothesis testing.

Why Nations Arm in the Age of Globalization

What accounts for different levels of military forces between countries and over time? Payne (1989) found in cross country regressions cultural influences to be the most important determinant. In contrast to Payne, we will show that the mechanisms of why nations arm can only be fully discovered by time series analysis and – going beyond Paynes model – we will test the impact of the end of the Cold War and show that the process of globalization has a significantly negative effect on the military efforts of nations. Democracy and the membership in defence alliances or supranational organisations have no impact on the level of armament at all.

Applying Factorial Surveys for Analyzing Complex, Morally Challenging and Sensitive Topics in Entrepreneurship Research: The Case of Entrepreneurial Ethics

This chapter aims at showing the benefits of using vignette based factorial surveys for examining complex and sensitive topics in entrepreneurship, innovation and technology research. The example of research on entrepreneurial ethics is used to illustrate potential methodological problems. A literature review on entrepreneurial ethics shows that factorial surveys have rarely been applied despite its benefits with respect to disentangling the effects of interrelated variables and reduction of social desirability. As the rare reception might be due to lack of knowledge in how to design and carry out such studies, a guideline is provided in how to set up and conduct a factorial survey.

Korruption und Sozialkapital: eine handlungstheoretische Perspektive auf die negativen externen Effekte korrupter Akteursbeziehungen

Die aktuelle Korruptionsforschung ist gepragt durch eine Vielzahl eklektischer, empirischer Ergebnisse, die aber weder in einen gemeinsamen Theorierahmen integrierbar scheinen, noch einer wissenschaftlichen Fachrichtung allein zugerechnet werden konnen. In theoretischer Hinsicht gibt es einen Mangel an konzeptuellen Uberlegungen, was vermutlich nicht nur auf den unscharfen Bedeutungshof des Begriffes „Korruption“ selbst zuruckzufuhren ist. Als rechtliches Phanomen ist Korruption immer verbunden mit juristischen Sachverhalten, die wesentliche Elemente des Begriffsverstandnisses definieren, jedoch ausreichend Raum fur eigene Interpretationen und Ausdeutungen lassen. Juristische Analysen des Korruptionsphanomens (etwa Bannenberg 2002) liefern eine Deskription von Kernelementen, implizieren aber nur selten Erklarungen fur das Auftreten oder die Konsequenzen von Korruption. Theoriebildungen anderer Fachdisziplinen finden in den juristischen Sachverhalten formale Inhalte vor, die – wenn der Bezug zu gesellschaftlich durchsetzungsfahigen Normen (und auch zu moglichen Verstandnisweisen und Sanktionen von Korruption) gewahrt bleiben soll – in diesen Ansatzen reflektiert werden konnen.

Kompetenz- und Wissensvermittlung als Antikorruption 3.0

Der Beitrag fuhrt in die Thematik der Vermittlung von Kompetenzen und Wissen zu Korruption und Antikorruption ein. So werden zum einen einschlagige praxisrelevante und wissenschaftliche Fragen formuliert. Zum anderen skizzieren die Herausgeber drei Dimensionen, die zweckmasig erscheinen, um wesentliche Aspekte der verschiedenen Beitrage systematisch und vergleichend darzustellen: 1) Didaktik, 2) Ethik und 3) Inhalte. In diesem Zusammenhang wird auch eine Typologie von Lehrveranstaltungen uber Korruption und Korruptionsbekampfung entworfen. Abschliesend werden die einzelnen Kapitel des Sammelbands kurz vorgestellt.