Sebastian Sattler

Cognitive Test Anxiety and Cognitive Enhancement: The Influence of Students’ Worries on Their Use of Performance-Enhancing Drugs

This online panel study (nt1 = 5,882; nt2 = 3,486 (randomly selected)) used multiple metrics to assess the prevalence of the nonmedical use of prescription medication for enhancing cognitive performance among German university students in 2010. Rare events logistic regression revealed that increased cognitive test anxiety increased the prevalence of medication use over various time windows. Negative binomial regression models showed that the higher the cognitive test anxiety, the higher the use frequencies were during the previous six months. The models controlled for expected side effects, risk attitudes, self-attributed competencies, prior medication use, sex, and age. We also discuss the studys implications.

The Rationale for Consuming Cognitive Enhancement Drugs in University Students and Teachers

Cognitive enhancement (CE) is the pharmaceutical augmentation of mental abilities (e.g., learning or memory) without medical necessity. This topic has recently attracted widespread attention in scientific and social circles. However, knowledge regarding the mechanisms that underlie the decision to use CE medication is limited. To analyze these decisions, we used data from two online surveys of randomly sampled university teachers (N = 1,406) and students (N = 3,486). Each respondent evaluated one randomly selected vignette with regard to a hypothetical CE drug. We experimentally varied the characteristics of the drugs among vignettes and distributed them among respondents. In addition, the respondent’s internalization of social norms with respect to CE drug use was measured. Our results revealed that students were more willing to enhance cognitive performance via drugs than university teachers, although the overall willingness was low. The probability of side effects and their strength reduced the willingness to use CE drugs among students and university teachers, whereas higher likelihoods and magnitudes of CE increased this propensity. In addition, the internalized norm against CE drug use influenced decision making: Higher internalization decreased the willingness to use such medications. Students’ internalized norms more strongly affected CE abstinence compared with those of university teachers. Furthermore, internalized norms negatively interacted with the instrumental incentives for taking CE medication. This internalization limited the influence of and deliberation on instrumental incentives. This study is the first to provide empirical evidence regarding the importance of social norms and their influence on rational decision making with regard to CE. We identified previously undiscovered decision-making patterns concerning CE. Thus, this study provides insight into the motivators and inhibitors of CE drug use. These findings have implications for contending with CE behavior by highlighting the magnitude of potential side effects and by informing the debate regarding the ethics of CE use.

Evaluating the drivers of and obstacles to the willingness to use cognitive enhancement drugs: the influence of drug characteristics, social environment, and personal characteristics

BackgroundThe use of cognitive enhancement (CE) by means of pharmaceutical agents has been the subject of intense debate both among scientists and in the media. This study investigates several drivers of and obstacles to the willingness to use prescription drugs non-medically for augmenting brain capacity.MethodsWe conducted a web-based study among 2,877 students from randomly selected disciplines at German universities. Using a factorial survey, respondents expressed their willingness to take various hypothetical CE-drugs; the drugs were described by five experimentally varied characteristics and the social environment by three varied characteristics. Personal characteristics and demographic controls were also measured.ResultsWe found that 65.3% of the respondents staunchly refused to use CE-drugs. The results of a multivariate negative binomial regression indicated that respondents’ willingness to use CE-drugs increased if the potential drugs promised a significant augmentation of mental capacity and a high probability of achieving this augmentation. Willingness decreased when there was a high probability of side effects and a high price. Prevalent CE-drug use among peers increased willingness, whereas a social environment that strongly disapproved of these drugs decreased it. Regarding the respondents’ characteristics, pronounced academic procrastination, high cognitive test anxiety, low intrinsic motivation, low internalization of social norms against CE-drug use, and past experiences with CE-drugs increased willingness. The potential severity of side effects, social recommendations about using CE-drugs, risk preferences, and competencies had no measured effects upon willingness.ConclusionsThese findings contribute to understanding factors that influence the willingness to use CE-drugs. They support the assumption of instrumental drug use and may contribute to the development of prevention, policy, and educational strategies.

Impact of Contextual Factors and Substance Characteristics on Perspectives toward Cognitive Enhancement

Enhancing cognitive performance with substances–especially prescription drugs–is a fiercely debated topic among scholars and in the media. The empirical basis for these discussions is limited, given that the actual nature of factors that influence the acceptability of and willingness to use cognitive enhancement substances remains unclear. In an online factorial survey, contextual and substance-specific characteristics of substances that improve academic performance were varied experimentally and presented to respondents. Students in four German universities rated their willingness to use and moral acceptance of different substances for cognitive enhancement. We found that the overall willingness to use performance enhancing substances is low. Most respondents considered the use of these substances as morally unacceptable. Situational influences such as peer pressure, policies concerning substance use, relative performance level of peers, but also characteristics of the substance, such as perceptions of substance safety, shape the willingness and acceptability of using a substance to enhance academic performance. Among the findings is evidence of a contagion effect meaning that the willingness was higher when the respondents have more CE drug users in their social network. We also found deterrence effects from strong side effects of using the substance, as well as from policy regulations and sanctions. Regulations might activate social norms against usage and sanctions can be seen as costly to users. Moreover, enhancement substances seem to be most tempting to low performers to catch up with others compared to high performers. By identifying contextual factors and substance characteristics influencing the willingness and acceptability of cognitive enhancers, policy approaches could consider these insights to better manage the use of such substances.

Explaining the Decision to Plagiarize: An Empirical Test of the Interplay Between Rationality, Norms, and Opportunity

Plagiarism is a fraudulent behavior that infringes on the rules of universities and intellectual property rights. Rational choice theory provides a theoretical framework for explaining this deviant behavior. Our study increases knowledge of the little analyzed interrelation among the individual determinants of deviant behavior. We use panel data from a large-scale random sample of university students (N = 2,806). The expected utility of plagiarism, internalized social norms, and opportunities to plagiarize can explain the frequency of plagiarism. The significant interaction between utility and opportunity could be interpreted as a form of temptation. Promising strategies to reduce plagiarism are also discussed.

Investigating the effect of academic procrastination on the frequency and variety of academic misconduct: a panel study

In prior studies, academic procrastination has been discussed as an influencing factor of academic misconduct. However, empirical studies were conducted solely cross-sectionally and investigated only a few forms of academic misconduct. This large scale web-based study examined the responses of between 1359 and 2207 participants from different academic disciplines at four German universities to address the effect of academic procrastination on seven different forms of academic misconduct (using fraudulent excuses, plagiarism, copying from someone else in exams, using forbidden means in exams, carrying forbidden means into exams, copying parts of homework from others, and fabrication or falsification of data) and its variety. In measuring academic procrastination six months prior to academic misconduct, we found that academic procrastination affected the frequency of all forms of academic misconduct and its variety. We found the strongest effect of academic procrastination on using fraudulent excuses. Implications for university counseling and theory are discussed.

Cognitive Enhancement and Academic Misconduct: A Study Exploring Their Frequency and Relationship

We investigated the acceptability and use frequency of cognitive enhancement medication and three different types of academic misconduct (plagiarism, cheating, and falsifying/fabricating data). Data collected from a web-based survey of German university students were used in our analysis. Moral acceptability of cognitive enhancers was relatively low and moderate for academic misconduct. The correlation between these measures was moderately weak. The use frequency of cognitive enhancers was lower than for academic misconduct and was (very) lightly correlated with the occurrences of reported plagiarism and fabrication/falsification. A higher acceptability of each act was associated with a higher use frequency of each act.

Response Effects of Prenotification, Prepaid Cash, Prepaid Vouchers, and Postpaid Vouchers

In a web-based experiment with 1,750 randomly sampled university students, we investigated the effect of mailed prenotification plus prepaid cash, mailed prenotification plus a prepaid voucher, mailed prenotification plus a postpaid voucher, and mailed prenotification on its own as compared to a control group without prenotification or incentives. Dependent measures were response, retention, and item nonresponse. Mailed prenotification over no prenotification increased response and retention and decreased item nonresponse. Prenotification plus prepaid cash maximized response and retention. Item nonresponse was lowest with prenotification plus postpaid vouchers and second lowest with prenotification plus prepaid cash. In addition, we compared the cost for all experimental groups. Total costs were highest for prenotification plus prepaid cash, but costs per respondent or per retainee were highest in the control group. In sum, this experiment shows ways of improving participation in web surveys.

Associations Between the Big Five Personality Traits and the Non-Medical Use of Prescription Drugs for Cognitive Enhancement

While the number of studies of the non-medical use of prescription drugs to augment cognitive functions is growing steadily, psychological factors that can potentially help explain variance in such pharmaceutical cognitive enhancement (CE) behavior are often neglected in research. This study investigates the association between the Big Five personality traits and a retrospective (prior CE-drug use) as well as a prospective (willingness to use CE drugs) measure of taking prescription drugs with the purpose of augmenting ones cognitive functions (e.g., concentration, memory, or vigilance) without medical necessity. We use data from a large representative survey of German employees (N = 6454, response rate = 29.8%). The Five Factor Model (FFM) of Personality was measured with a short version of the Big Five Personality Traits Inventory (BFI-S), which includes: openness to experience, conscientiousness, extraversion, agreeableness, and neuroticism. Together with this, demographic variables such as gender, age, education, and income were used as potential confounders in multiple logistic regression models. Our results show a 2.96% lifetime prevalence of CE-drug use and a 10.45% willingness to (re)use such drugs in the future. We found that less conscientious and more neurotic respondents have a higher probability of prior CE-drug use and a greater willingness to use CE drugs in the future. No significant effects were found for openness, extraversion, or agreeableness. Prior CE-drug use was strongly associated with a greater willingness to take such drugs in the future. This study shows that specific personality traits are not only associated with prior enhancement behavior, but also affect the willingness to (re)use such drugs. It helps increase understanding of the risk factors of CE-drug use, which is a health-related behavior that can entail severe side-effects for consumers. The knowledge gathered can thus help improve interventions aimed at minimizing health problems.

Wechselwirkungen zwischen Arbeitslosigkeit und dem sozialen Netzwerk

Zwischen dem Ereignis bzw. Zustand der Arbeitslosigkeit auf der einen und dem sozialen Netzwerk auf der anderen Seite bestehen Abhangigkeiten in beide Wirkungsrichtungen. Insgesamt betrachten wir im Folgenden vier dieser Zusammenhange: I) Arbeitslosigkeit kann sich 1. auf Netzwerkeigenschaften Egos auswirken. II) Umgekehrt konnen soziale Beziehungen Ego 2. bei der Bewaltigung von Arbeitslosigkeit helfen und ihn 3. bei der Uberwindung von Arbeitslosigkeit unterstutzen, 4. aber auch die Entstehung von Arbeitslosigkeit induzieren (siehe Abbildung). Mit diesen jeweils spezifischen Zusammenhangen beschaftigen sich – teilweise mit Uberschneidungen – jeweils eigene Forschungsstrange, die in diesem Beitrag uberblicksartig dargestellt werden. Diese Forschung besitzt aus mehreren Grunden eine gewichtige gesellschaftliche Relevanz: Beispielsweise kann mit den Erkenntnissen an der Vermeidung negativer Folgen von Arbeitslosigkeit fur die Betroffenen, zugehorigen Familien (insbesondere Kinder) sowie fur das soziale Sicherungssystem gearbeitet; die Verweildauer in Arbeitslosigkeit beeinflusst; schnellere „job-matches“ erreicht; aber auch Anforderungen des sozialen Netzwerkes an das Individuum bei der Integration in den Arbeitsmarkt berucksichtigt werden (u.a. Hakim 1982; Hess et al. 1991; Wanberg et al. 2000).