Peter Pediaditakis

A Mechanism of Cell Survival: Sequestration of Fas by the HGF Receptor Met

Death receptors such as Fas are present in a variety of organs including liver and play an important role in homeostasis. What prevents these harmful receptors from forming homooligomers, clustering, and initiating the apoptotic pathway is not known. Here, we report the discovery of a cell survival mechanism by which Met, a growth factor receptor tyrosine kinase, directly binds to and sequesters the death receptor Fas in hepatocytes. This interaction prevents Fas self-aggregation and Fas ligand binding, thus inhibiting Fas activation and apoptosis. Our results describe a direct link between growth factor tyrosine kinase receptors and death receptors to establish a novel paradigm in growth regulation.

Nitric oxide protects rat hepatocytes against reperfusion injury mediated by the mitochondrial permeability transition

We investigated the effects of nitric oxide (NO) on hepatocellular killing after simulated ischemia/reperfusion and characterized signaling factors triggering cytoprotection by NO. Cultured rat hepatocytes were incubated in anoxic Krebs‐Ringer–HEPES buffer at pH 6.2 for 4 hours and reoxygenated at pH 7.4 for 2 hours. During reoxygenation, some hepatocytes were exposed to combinations of NO donors (S‐nitroso‐N‐acetylpenicillamine [SNAP] and others), a cGMP analogue (8‐bromoguanosine‐3,5‐cGMP [8‐Br‐cGMP]), and a cGMP‐dependent protein kinase inhibitor (KT5823). Cell viability was determined by way of propidium iodide fluorometry. Inner membrane permeabilization and mitochondrial depolarization were monitored by confocal microscopy. SNAP, but not oxidized SNAP, increased cGMP during reperfusion and decreased cell killing. Other NO donors and 8‐Br‐cGMP also prevented cell killing. Both guanylyl cyclase and cGMP‐dependent kinase inhibition blocked the cytoprotection of NO. However, 5‐hydroxydecanoate and diazoxide— mitochondrial KATP channel modulators—did not affect NO‐dependent cytoprotection or reperfusion injury. During reoxygenation, confocal microscopy showed mitochondrial repolarization, followed by depolarization, inner membrane permeabilization, and cell death. In the presence of either SNAP or 8‐Br‐cGMP, mitochondrial repolarization was sustained after reperfusion preventing inner membrane permeabilization and cell death. In isolated rat liver mitochondria, a cGMP analogue in the presence of a cytosolic extract and adenosine triphosphate blocked the Ca2+‐induced mitochondrial permeability transition (MPT), an effect that was reversed by KT5823. In conclusion, NO prevents MPT‐dependent necrotic killing of ischemic hepatocytes after reperfusion through a guanylyl cyclase and cGMP‐dependent kinase signaling pathway, events that may represent the target of NO cytoprotection in preconditioning. (HEPATOLOGY 2004;39:1533–1543.)

Closure of VDAC causes oxidative stress and accelerates the Ca2+-induced mitochondrial permeability transition in rat liver mitochondria

The electron transport chain of mitochondria is a major source of reactive oxygen species (ROS), which play a critical role in augmenting the Ca(2+)-induced mitochondrial permeability transition (MPT). Mitochondrial release of superoxide anions (O(2)(-)) from the intermembrane space (IMS) to the cytosol is mediated by voltage dependent anion channels (VDAC) in the outer membrane. Here, we examined whether closure of VDAC increases intramitochondrial oxidative stress by blocking efflux of O(2)(-) from the IMS and sensitizing to the Ca(2+)-induced MPT. Treatment of isolated rat liver mitochondria with 5microM G3139, an 18-mer phosphorothioate blocker of VDAC, accelerated onset of the MPT by 6.8+/-1.4min within a range of 100-250microM Ca(2+). G3139-mediated acceleration of the MPT was reversed by 20microM butylated hydroxytoluene, a water soluble antioxidant. Pre-treatment of mitochondria with G3139 also increased accumulation of O(2)(-) in mitochondria, as monitored by dihydroethidium fluorescence, and permeabilization of the mitochondrial outer membrane with digitonin reversed the effect of G3139 on O(2)(-) accumulation. Mathematical modeling of generation and turnover of O(2)(-) within the IMS indicated that closure of VDAC produces a 1.55-fold increase in the steady-state level of mitochondrial O(2)(-). In conclusion, closure of VDAC appears to impede the efflux of superoxide anions from the IMS, resulting in an increased steady-state level of O(2)(-), which causes an internal oxidative stress and sensitizes mitochondria toward the Ca(2+)-induced MPT.

Inhibition of Mitochondrial Respiration as a Source of Adaphostin-induced Reactive Oxygen Species and Cytotoxicity

Adaphostin is a dihydroquinone derivative that is undergoing extensive preclinical testing as a potential anticancer drug. Previous studies have suggested that the generation of reactive oxygen species (ROS) plays a critical role in the cytotoxicity of this agent. In this study, we investigated the source of these ROS. Consistent with the known chemical properties of dihydroquinones, adaphostin simultaneously underwent oxidation to the corresponding quinone and generated ROS under aqueous conditions. Interestingly, however, this quinone was not detected in intact cells. Instead, high performance liquid chromatography demonstrated that adaphostin was concentrated by up to 300-fold in cells relative to the extracellular medium and that the highest concentration of adaphostin (3000-fold over extracellular concentrations) was detected in mitochondria. Consistent with a mitochondrial site for adaphostin action, adaphostin-induced ROS production was diminished by >75% in MOLT-4 rho0 cells, which lack mitochondrial electron transport, relative to parental MOLT-4 cells. In addition, inhibition of oxygen consumption was observed when intact cells were treated with adaphostin. Loading of isolated mitochondria to equivalent adaphostin concentrations caused inhibition of uncoupled oxygen consumption in mitochondria incubated with the complex I substrates pyruvate and malate or the complex II substrate succinate. Further analysis demonstrated that adaphostin had no effect on pyruvate or succinate dehydrogenase activity. Instead, adaphostin inhibited reduced decylubiquinone-induced cytochrome c reduction, identifying complex III as the site of inhibition by this agent. Moreover, adaphostin enhanced the production of ROS by succinate-charged mitochondria. Collectively, these observations demonstrate that mitochondrial respiration rather than direct redox cycling of the hydroquinone moiety is a source of adaphostin-induced ROS and identify complex III as a potential target for antineoplastic agents.

13C magnetic resonance spectroscopy detection of changes in serine isotopomers reflects changes in mitochondrial redox status

The glycine cleavage system (GCS), the major pathway of glycine catabolism in liver, is found only in the mitochondria matrix and is regulated by the oxidized nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD+)/reduced nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NADH) ratio. In conjunction with serine hydroxymethyltransferase, glycine forms the 1 and 2 positions of serine, while the 3 position is formed exclusively by GCS. Therefore, we sought to exploit this pathway to show that quantitative measurements of serine isotopomers in liver can be used to monitor the NAD+/NADH ratio using 13C NMR spectroscopy. Rat hepatocytes were treated with modulators of GCS activity followed by addition of 2‐13C‐glycine, and the changes in the proportions of newly synthesized serine isotopomers were compared to controls. Cysteamine, a competitive inhibitor of GCS, prevented formation of mitochondrial 3‐13C‐serine and 2,3‐13C‐serine isotopomers while reducing 2‐13C‐serine by 55%, demonstrating that ca. 20% of glycine‐derived serine is produced in the cytosol. Glucagon, which activates GCS activity, and the mitochondrial uncoupler carbonyl cyanide‐3‐chlorophenylhydrazone both increased serine isotopomers, whereas rotenone, an inhibitor of complex I, had the opposite effect. These results demonstrate that 13C magnetic resonance spectroscopy monitoring of the formation of serine isotopomers in isolated rat hepatocytes given 2‐13C‐glycine reflects the changes of mitochondrial redox status. Magn Reson Med, 2012.

Contribution of Mitochondria and Lysosomes to Photodynamic Therapy-Induced Death in Cancer Cells

In photodynamic therapy (PDT), visible light activates a photosensitizing drug added to a tissue, resulting in singlet oxygen formation and cell death. Employing confocal microscopy, we previously found that the phthalocyanine Pc 4 localized primarily to mitochondrial membranes in various cancer cell lines, resulting in mitochondrial reactive oxygen species (ROS) production, followed by inner membrane permeabilization (mitochondrial permeability transition) with mitochondrial depolarization and swelling, which in turn led to cytochrome c release and apoptotic death. Recently, derivatives of Pc 4 with OH groups added to one of the axial ligands were synthesized. These derivatives appeared to be taken up more avidly by cells and caused more cytotoxicity than the parent compound Pc 4. Using organelle-specific fluorophores, we found that one of these derivatives, Pc 181, accumulated into lysosomes and that PDT with Pc 181 caused rapid disintegration of lysosomes. We hypothesized that chelatable iron released from lysosomes during PDT contributes to mitochondrial damage and subsequent cell death. We monitored cytosolic Fe2+ concentrations after PDT with calcein. Fe2+ binds to calcein causing quenching of calcein fluorescence. After bafilomycin, an inhibitor of the vacuolar proton-translocating ATPase, calcein fluorescence became quenched, an effect prevented by starch desferal s-DFO, an iron chelator that enters cells by endocytosis. After Pc 181-PDT, cytosolic calcein fluorescence also decreased, indicating increased chelatable Fe2+ in the cytosol, and apoptosis occurred. s-DFO decreased Pc 181-PDT-induced apoptosis as measured by a decrease of caspase-3 activation. In isolated mitochondria preparations, Fe2+ induced mitochondrial swelling, which was prevented by Ru360, an inhibitor of the mitochondrial Ca2+ uniporter. The data support a hypothesis of oxidative injury in which Pc 181-PDT disintegrates lysosomes and releases constituents that synergistically promote mitochondrial permeabilization and apoptotic signaling. One important constituent seems to be Fe2+ that is taken up by mitochondria through the Ca2+ uniporter to promote mitochondrial ROS-dependent chain reactions. Lysosomal proteases may also directly promote apoptotic signaling, e.g., through cleavage/activation of the pro-apoptotic protein Bid.ÿÿÿ

Role of voltage-dependent anion channels of the mitochondrial outer membrane in regulation of cell metabolism

The role of voltage-dependent anion channels (VDAC/porins) of the mitochondrial outer membrane in the regulation of cell metabolism is assessed using an experimental model of ethanol toxicity in cultured hepatocytes. It is demonstrated that ethanol inhibits the phosphorylating and the uncoupled mitochondrial respiration, decreases the accessibility of mitochondrial adenylate kinase in the intermembrane space, and suppresses ureagenic respiration in the cells. Treatment with digitonin at high concentrations (>80 μM)—which creates pores in the mitochondrial outer membrane, allowing bypass of closed VDAC—restores all the processes suppressed with ethanol. It is concluded that the effect of ethanol in hepatocytes leads to global loss of mitochondrial function because of closure of VDAC, which limits the free diffusion of metabolites into the intermembrane space. Our studies also reveal the role of VDAC in the regulation of liver-specific intracellular processes such as ureagenesis. The data obtained can be used in development of pharmaceuticals that would prevent VDAC closure in mitochondria of ethanol-oxidizing liver, thus protecting liver tissue from the hepatotoxic action of alcohol.