Philip J Pearson

A systematic review of the effectiveness of physical education and school sport interventions targeting physical activity, movement skills and enjoyment of physical activity

This article presents a systematic review of published literature on the effectiveness of physical education in promoting participation in physical activity, enjoyment of physical activity and movement skill proficiency in children and adolescents. The review utilized a literature search, specifically publications listed in Ovid, A+ Education, ERIC, Sports Discus, Science Direct, PsychInfo from 1990 to June 2010. The literature search yielded 27,410 potentially relevant publications. Twenty-three articles met the inclusion criteria established for this review and applied by three independent reviewers. Articles were rated independently by three reviewers using a 10-item methodological quality scale derived from the CONSORT 2010 statement. The results of the review detail the nature, scope and focus of intervention strategies reported, and reported outcomes of interventions. The most effective strategies to increase children’s levels of physical activity and improve movement skills in physical education were direct instruction teaching methods and providing teachers with sufficient and ongoing professional development in using these physical education (PE) instruction methods. However, the review revealed a lack of high quality evaluations and statistical power to draw conclusions concerning the effectiveness of interventions conducted in physical education and school sport to improve enjoyment outcomes. It is argued that adequately powered interventions that target movement skills in secondary schools and evaluate school sport curriculum are urgently needed.

Barriers to increasing physical activity and limiting small screen recreation among obese children

SUMMARY OBJECTIVE To investigate the barriers to increasing physical activity and limiting small screen recreation time among obese children. DESIGN Qualitative study using a case study design incorporating focus groups and interviews with parents and pair interviews with children. PARTICIPANTS Nine obese children (age range 5-12 years) and their parents. METHODS Parents participated in focus groups followed by individual interviews to explain their perceptions of the barriers their child faced in spending more time participating in physical activity and less time in small screen recreation. Children took part in pair interviews to identify their barriers. Parents and children also discussed strategies to promote physical activity and limit small screen recreation time. RESULTS A wide range of barriers were identified. These included family dynamics, lack of social support, the physical environment and perceived competence. Parents were unable to identify strategies to overcome these barriers. CONCLUSION AND IMPLICATIONS Among obese children and their parents, there are an array of barriers to increasing physical activity and limiting small screen recreation. Parents believe that they know what they have to do to overcome many of these barriers but they are unaware of the actions they need to take.

Changes in physical activity levels, lesson context, and teacher interaction during physical education in culturally and linguistically diverse Australian schools.

BackgroundRecent data show that only 15% of Australian adolescents participate in adequate amounts of physical activity (PA) and those students from Asian and Middle-Eastern backgrounds in Grades 6–12 are significantly less active than their English-speaking background peers. Schools have recently been recognised as the most widely used and cost-effective setting for promoting PA among youth and one domain within schools where PA can occur regularly for all youth, regardless of cultural background or socio-economic status, is during physical education (PE).MethodsThis study describes changes in physical activity (PA), lesson context and teacher interaction in physical education over the first two years in culturally and linguistically diverse secondary schools. Grade 7 PE classes in six schools were randomly observed using systematic direct observation (n = 81) and then followed up over the same period (n = 51) twelve months later.ResultsThere was no significant decline in moderate-to-vigorous physical activity (MVPA) during PE (MD = −4.8%; p = .777), but a significant decline and medium negative effect in time spent in vigorous physical activity (VPA) (MD = −7.9%; p = .009) during PE was observed. Significant declines and large negative effects over time in percentage of PE time spent in management (MD = −8.8%; p < .001) and the number of observations where teachers promoted PA (MD = −20.7%; p < .001).ConclusionsThe decline of VPA and teacher promotion of PA in culturally and linguistically diverse schools is of concern. Given the declines in VPA and the increases in time spent in game play, further research is needed to ascertain whether PE instruction could be improved by focussing on skill instruction and fitness in a games-based PE instruction model. Further research for increasing teacher promotion of PA during PE is needed.

Promoting motor skills in low-income, ethnic children: The Physical Activity in Linguistically Diverse Communities (PALDC) nonrandomized trial

OBJECTIVES This study reports the long-term effects of a professional learning program for classroom teachers on fundamental motor skill (FMS) proficiency of primary school students from ethnically diverse backgrounds. DESIGN A cluster non-randomized trial using a nested cross-sectional design. METHODS The study was conducted in 8 primary schools located in disadvantaged and culturally diverse areas in Sydney, Australia. The intervention used an action learning framework, with each school developing and implementing an action plan for enhancing the teaching of FMS in their school. School teams comprised 4-5 teachers and were supported by a member of the research team. The primary outcome was total proficiency score for 7 FMS (run, jump, catch, throw, kick, leap, side gallop). Outcome data were analyzed using mixed effects models. RESULTS Eight-hundred and sixty-two students (82% response rate) were assessed at baseline in 2006 and 830 (82%) at follow-up in 2010. Compared with students in the control schools, there was a significantly greater increase in total motor skill proficiency among children in the intervention schools at follow-up (adjusted difference=5.2 components, 95%CI [1.65, 8.75]; p=0.01) and in four of the seven motor skills. CONCLUSIONS Training classroom teachers to develop and implement units of work based around individual FMS is a promising strategy for increasing FMS among ethnically diverse children over an extended period of time.

Recommendations for policy and practice of physical education in culturally and linguistically diverse Australian secondary schools based on a two-year prospective cohort study

Physical activity affords a host of physical and cognitive benefits for children. Physical education classes are one such venue where children can reap recommended amounts of physical activity. However, little research has explored evidence-based physical education instruction, particularly in culturally and linguistically diverse schools. No studies to date have provided recommendations for a range of educational stakeholders that serve these students. The Physical Activity in Linguistically Diverse Communities study examined the evidence-based physical education opportunities and barriers at six culturally and linguistically diverse high schools in New South Wales, Australia. This article provides implications and synthesized recommendations based on Phase One (systematic review) and Phase Two (prospective cohort study of students in six schools) of Physical Activity in Linguistically Diverse Communities for school leadership and psychologists targeting policy and practice changes on a systems level.

Decline in enjoyment of physical education among culturally and linguistically diverse youth

Enjoyment of physical education (PE) is frequently cited as a legitimate outcome in many PE curricula in Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) nations (Dudley et al., 2011). The purpose of this study was to examine how student enjoyment of PE changed during the first two years of secondary schooling in Australia. Participants were 586 students enrolled in six culturally and linguistically diverse (CALD) secondary schools (2 x co-educational, 2 x all girls’ and 2 x all boys’). A prospective cohort design was used with data collected using the Physical Activity Enjoyment Scale (PE version) (PACES PE). There was a small (MD = –1.8, d = –0.30) but significant (p < .001) decline in overall enjoyment of PE between Grade 7 and Grade 8. The decline in enjoyment of PE was greatest among girls (regardless of school-type) and having to change uniforms had the largest negative effect (d = –0.42) of that decline. Peer relationships had the largest negative effect (d = –0.40) on boys enjoyment of PE. It is recommended that schools examine PE uniform policies and increasing teacher and peer support strategies in PE to maintain enjoyment during middle/high school.

‘We should assess the students in more authentic situations’ Swedish PE teacher educators’ views of the meaning of movement skills for future PE teachers

The question of what knowledge a student of Physical Education (PE) needs to develop during PE teacher education (PETE) was recently discussed. One form of knowledge is the movement practices that students must meet during their education. Given the limited time, a delicate matter is whether to prioritize movement knowledge and consider it as subject matter knowledge (e.g. performance of the freestyle stroke) or as pedagogical content knowledge (e.g. teaching how to perform the freestyle stroke). The aim is to investigate Swedish PE teacher educators’ views on the meaning of movement skills for future PE teachers and to analyse the learning cultures made visible in the ways the meaning of movement is expressed. We conducted interviews with 12 teacher-educators and collected documents with tasks for assessment from five PETE universities in Sweden. Inspired by Bourdieu’s field metaphor, and particularly its use by Hodkinson et al. on learning cultures, we then analysed the collected material. In the results, different views on the meaning of movement skills are made visible. The PE teacher can be seen as an instructor, as well as a facilitator of movements. Movement skills can be seen as essential for a teacher in PE, as well as valuable but not essential. Movement quality can also be viewed as universal, as well as contextual. Swedish teacher educators in PE appear to ascribe value to all the positions made visible in this study. These results are discussed from the perspectives of epistemology, assessment and learning cultures.

Understanding the day-to-day lives of obese children and their families.

This study investigated the daily lives of obese children and their families to better understand factors influencing weight-related behaviors. A multiple case study design was implemented with 6 obese children and their families. Participant observations occurred in different settings from when the children woke until they went to bed, yielding approximately 95 hours of data per family. Lack of parenting skills and role modeling, environments encouraging poor weight-related behaviors, low self-awareness and enjoyment of sedentary activities were common themes. Child obesity involves a complex set of factors interacting to place a child at risk of developing weight problems.

Identifying diverse means for assessing physical activity

September/October 2012 Physical inactivity is of concern for the majority of age groups within the United States (United States Department of Health and Human Services [USDHHS], 2001; 2008). Limited engagement in physical activity (PA) has been linked with an increased risk for a host of health problems, including but not limited to heart disease, diabetes and cancer (Center for Disease Control [CDC], 1997). Benefits of PA are widely documented and accepted yet many people, especially school-aged children, lack the necessary activity levels to combat these health risks (USDHHS, 2008). As such, the USDHHS (2008) indicates that physical education programs can provide a medium to enhance the level of PA (e.g., education and opportunities) for students. In addition, both the National Association for Sport and Physical Education (NASPE) (2004) and the USDHHS (2010) suggest regular PA as an aspect of a student who is physically educated. While providing students with increased opportunities to engage in PA both inside and outside the physical education setting, a concern for physical educators is their ability to adequately assess students’ PA. The assessment of PA provides educators with an opportunity to calculate the effectiveness of their lessons from an activity perspective. In addition, comparisons can be made in relation to the amount of different pedagogical approaches and/or units of study offered. Therefore, the purpose of this article is to provide physical educators with an overview of diverse techniques and equipment to measure PA within their dynamic physical education class. Specifically, this article will discuss how PA can be assessed through: a) teacher observation, b) self-monitoring, c) selfreporting, and d) activity monitors.