Philip Kitchen

Human aquaporins: regulators of transcellular water flow

BACKGROUND Emerging evidence supports the view that (AQP) aquaporin water channels are regulators of transcellular water flow. Consistent with their expression in most tissues, AQPs are associated with diverse physiological and pathophysiological processes. SCOPE OF REVIEW AQP knockout studies suggest that the regulatory role of AQPs, rather than their action as passive channels, is their critical function. Transport through all AQPs occurs by a common passive mechanism, but their regulation and cellular distribution varies significantly depending on cell and tissue type; the role of AQPs in cell volume regulation (CVR) is particularly notable. This review examines the regulatory role of AQPs in transcellular water flow, especially in CVR. We focus on key systems of the human body, encompassing processes as diverse as urine concentration in the kidney to clearance of brain oedema. MAJOR CONCLUSIONS AQPs are crucial for the regulation of water homeostasis, providing selective pores for the rapid movement of water across diverse cell membranes and playing regulatory roles in CVR. Gating mechanisms have been proposed for human AQPs, but have only been reported for plant and microbial AQPs. Consequently, it is likely that the distribution and abundance of AQPs in a particular membrane is the determinant of membrane water permeability and a regulator of transcellular water flow. GENERAL SIGNIFICANCE Elucidating the mechanisms that regulate transcellular water flow will improve our understanding of the human body in health and disease. The central role of specific AQPs in regulating water homeostasis will provide routes to a range of novel therapies. This article is part of a Special Issue entitled Aquaporins.

Beyond water homeostasis: Diverse functional roles of mammalian aquaporins.

BACKGROUND Aquaporin (AQP) water channels are best known as passive transporters of water that are vital for water homeostasis. SCOPE OF REVIEW AQP knockout studies in whole animals and cultured cells, along with naturally occurring human mutations suggest that the transport of neutral solutes through AQPs has important physiological roles. Emerging biophysical evidence suggests that AQPs may also facilitate gas (CO2) and cation transport. AQPs may be involved in cell signalling for volume regulation and controlling the subcellular localization of other proteins by forming macromolecular complexes. This review examines the evidence for these diverse functions of AQPs as well their physiological relevance. MAJOR CONCLUSIONS As well as being crucial for water homeostasis, AQPs are involved in physiologically important transport of molecules other than water, regulation of surface expression of other membrane proteins, cell adhesion, and signalling in cell volume regulation. GENERAL SIGNIFICANCE Elucidating the full range of functional roles of AQPs beyond the passive conduction of water will improve our understanding of mammalian physiology in health and disease. The functional variety of AQPs makes them an exciting drug target and could provide routes to a range of novel therapies.

Identification and Molecular Mechanisms of the Rapid Tonicity-induced Relocalization of the Aquaporin 4 Channel

Background: The water channel protein aquaporin 4 (AQP4) controls water permeability of the blood-brain barrier. Results: Hypotonicity induces rapid relocalization of AQP4 in a calcium-, calmodulin-, and kinase-dependent manner. Conclusion: AQP4 can be relocalized between the cell membrane and intracellular compartments. Significance: Pharmacological modulation of AQP4 membrane localization could provide a new approach to treating brain edema. The aquaporin family of integral membrane proteins is composed of channels that mediate cellular water flow. Aquaporin 4 (AQP4) is highly expressed in the glial cells of the central nervous system and facilitates the osmotically driven pathological brain swelling associated with stroke and traumatic brain injury. Here we show that AQP4 cell surface expression can be rapidly and reversibly regulated in response to changes of tonicity in primary cortical rat astrocytes and in transfected HEK293 cells. The translocation mechanism involves PKA activation, influx of extracellular calcium, and activation of calmodulin. We identify five putative PKA phosphorylation sites and use site-directed mutagenesis to show that only phosphorylation at one of these sites, serine 276, is necessary for the translocation response. We discuss our findings in the context of the identification of new therapeutic approaches to treating brain edema.

Plasma Membrane Abundance of Human Aquaporin 5 Is Dynamically Regulated by Multiple Pathways.

Aquaporin membrane protein channels mediate cellular water flow. Human aquaporin 5 (AQP5) is highly expressed in the respiratory system and secretory glands where it facilitates the osmotically-driven generation of pulmonary secretions, saliva, sweat and tears. Dysfunctional trafficking of AQP5 has been implicated in several human disease states, including Sjögren’s syndrome, bronchitis and cystic fibrosis. In order to investigate how the plasma membrane expression levels of AQP5 are regulated, we studied real-time translocation of GFP-tagged AQP5 in HEK293 cells. We show that AQP5 plasma membrane abundance in transfected HEK293 cells is rapidly and reversibly regulated by at least three independent mechanisms involving phosphorylation at Ser156, protein kinase A activity and extracellular tonicity. The crystal structure of a Ser156 phosphomimetic mutant indicates that its involvement in regulating AQP5 membrane abundance is not mediated by a conformational change of the carboxy-terminus. We suggest that together these pathways regulate cellular water flow.

Structural Determinants of Oligomerization of the Aquaporin-4 Channel

The aquaporin (AQP) family of integral membrane protein channels mediate cellular water and solute flow. Although qualitative and quantitative differences in channel permeability, selectivity, subcellular localization, and trafficking responses have been observed for different members of the AQP family, the signature homotetrameric quaternary structure is conserved. Using a variety of biophysical techniques, we show that mutations to an intracellular loop (loop D) of human AQP4 reduce oligomerization. Non-tetrameric AQP4 mutants are unable to relocalize to the plasma membrane in response to changes in extracellular tonicity, despite equivalent constitutive surface expression levels and water permeability to wild-type AQP4. A network of AQP4 loop D hydrogen bonding interactions, identified using molecular dynamics simulations and based on a comparative mutagenic analysis of AQPs 1, 3, and 4, suggest that loop D interactions may provide a general structural framework for tetrameric assembly within the AQP family.

Transcriptome analysis suggests a role for the differential expression of cerebral aquaporins and the MAPK signalling pathway in human temporal lobe epilepsy

Epilepsies are common disorders of the central nervous system (CNS), affecting up to 2% of the global population. Pharmaco‐resistance is a major clinical challenge affecting about 30% of temporal lobe epilepsy (TLE) patients. Water homeostasis has been shown crucial for regulation of neuronal excitability. The control of water movement is achieved through a family of small integral membrane channel proteins called aquaporins (AQPs). Despite the fact that changes in water homeostasis occur in sclerotic hippocampi of people with TLE, the expression of AQPs in the epileptic brain is not fully characterised. This study uses microarray and ELISA methods to analyse the mRNA and protein expression of the human cerebral AQPs in sclerotic hippocampi (TLE‐HS) and adjacent neocortex tissue (TLE‐NC) of TLE patients. The expression of AQP1 and AQP4 transcripts was significantly increased, while that of the AQP9 transcript was significantly reduced in TLE‐HS compared to TLE‐NC. AQP4 protein expression was also increased while expression of AQP1 protein remained unchanged, and AQP9 was undetected. Microarray data analysis identified 3333 differentially regulated genes and suggested the involvement of the MAPK signalling pathway in TLE pathogenesis. Proteome array data validated the translational profile for 26 genes and within the MAPK pathway (e.g. p38, JNK) that were identified as differentially expressed from microarray analysis. ELISA data showed that p38 and JNK inhibitors decrease AQP4 protein levels in cultured human primary cortical astrocytes. Elucidating the mechanism of selective regulation of different AQPs and associated regulatory proteins may provide a new therapeutic approach to epilepsy treatment.

Control of the Aquaporin-4 Channel Water Permeability by Structural Dynamics of Aromatic/Arginine Selectivity Filter Residues.

The aquaporins (AQPs) make up a family of integral membrane proteins that control cellular water flow. Gating of the water channel by conformational changes induced by phosphorylation or protein-protein interactions is an established regulatory mechanism for AQPs. Recent in silico and crystallographic analyses of the structural biology of AQPs suggest that the rate of water flow can also be controlled by small movements of single-amino acid side chains lining the water pore. Here we use measurements of the membrane water permeability of mammalian cells expressing AQP4 mutants to provide the first in vitro evidence in support of this hypothesis.

Hypothermia increases aquaporin 4 (AQP4) plasma membrane abundance in human primary cortical astrocytes via a calcium/ transient receptor potential vanilloid 4 (TRPV4)- and calmodulin-mediated mechanism

Human aquaporin 4 (AQP4) is the primary water channel protein in brain astrocytes. Hypothermia is known to cause astrocyte swelling in culture, but the precise role of AQP4 in this process is unknown. Primary human cortical astrocytes were cultured under hypothermic (32 °C) or normothermic (37 °C) conditions. AQP4 transcript, total protein and surface‐localized protein were quantified using RT‐qPCR, sandwich ELISA with whole cell lysates or cell surface biotinylation, followed by ELISA analysis of the surface‐localized protein, respectively. Four‐hour mild hypothermic treatment increased the surface localization of AQP4 in human astrocytes to 155 ± 4% of normothermic controls, despite no change in total protein expression levels. The hypothermia‐mediated increase in AQP4 surface abundance on human astrocytes was blocked using either calmodulin antagonist (trifluoperazine, TFP); TRPV4 antagonist, HC‐067047 or calcium chelation using EGTA‐AM. The TRPV4 agonist (GSK1016790A) mimicked the effect of hypothermia compared with untreated normothermic astrocytes. Hypothermia led to an increase in surface localization of AQP4 in human astrocytes through a mechanism likely dependent on the TRPV4 calcium channel and calmodulin activation. Understanding the effects of hypothermia on astrocytic AQP4 cell surface expression may help develop new treatments for brain swelling based on an in‐depth mechanistic understanding of AQP4 translocation.

PO-120 Proline rich homeodomain protein is required for cholangiocarcinoma tumour growth

Introduction Proline-Rich Homeodomain protein/Haematopoietically Expressed Homeobox (PRH/HHEX) is a transcription factor that regulates cell proliferation, migration, and differentiation in multiple tissues. PRH is essential for embryonic development of the liver and bile ducts and has tumour suppressor activity in hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC). Mis-regulation of PRH is associated with several cancers including HCC, breast cancer, prostate cancer, and leukaemia. Our objective is to determine whether PRH has a role in cholangiocarcinoma (cancer of the bile duct). Material and methods PRH was over-expressed in cholangiocarcinoma (CCA) cell lines and in primary bile duct epithelial cells (BECs) using an adenovirus expressing myc-tagged PRH and knockdown of PRH was achieved by stable expression of PRH shRNA. Cell proliferation was measured by EdU incorporation. RNA sequencing (RNA-seq) was used to determine genes and pathways regulated by PRH in CCA. Quantitative RT-PCR (qPCR) was used to confirm these changes and Western blotting and immunohistochemistry was used to examine the expression and localisation of the corresponding proteins. Mining of TCGA transcriptomics and genomics data was performed using UCSC Xena. Results and discussions Western blotting and immunohistochemical staining reveals that PRH protein is elevated in CCA compared to cholangiocytes and TCGA expression data indicate that PRH mRNA is commonly upregulated in CCA. Over-expression (OE) of PRH increases the proliferation of CCLP1 and CCSW1 CCA cell lines and BECs. Conversely, PRH KD decreases CCLP1 proliferation and alters the morphological phenotype of CCLP1 cells from mesenchymal to epithelial. Xenograft experiments with CCLP1 PRH knockdown (KD) cells compared to control cells shows that depletion of PRH significantly decreases tumour growth. Gene ontology and gene set enrichment analysis of RNA-seq data from CCLP1 PRH KD and OE cells indicates differential expression of genes involved in proliferation, adhesion, and migration including genes associated with Wnt signalling, and epithelial- mesenchymal transition (EMT). Western blotting confirms changes in protein expression in the KD cells in accord with the RNA-seq data. Examination of β-catenin subcellular localisation shows that PRH KD cells have decreased nuclear β-catenin. Conclusion Our data suggest that the PRH protein is intimately involved in the development of CCA.

Downregulation of aquaporin 3 inhibits cellular proliferation, migration and invasion in the MDA‑MB‑231 breast cancer cell line

Aquaporins are membrane proteins that regulate cellular water flow. Recently, aquaporins have been proposed as mediators of cancer cell biology. A subset of aquaporins, referred to as aquaglyceroporins are known to facilitate the transport of glycerol. The present study describes the effect of gene knockdown of the aquaglyceroporin AQP3 on MDA-MB-231 breast cancer cell proliferation, migration, invasion, adherence and response to the chemotherapeutic agent 5-fluorouracil. shRNA mediated AQP3 gene knockdown induced a 28% reduction in cellular proliferation (P<0.01), a 39% decrease in migration (P<0.0001), a 24% reduction in invasion (P<0.05) and a 25% increase in cell death at 100 µM 5-FU (P<0.01). Analysis of cell permeability to water and glycerol revealed that MDA-MB-231 cells with knocked down AQP3 demonstrated a modest decrease in water permeability (17%; P<0.05) but a more marked decrease in glycerol permeability (77%; P<0.001). These results suggest that AQP3 has a role in multiple aspects of breast cancer cell pathophysiology and therefore represents a novel target for therapeutic intervention.