Philip Palmgreen

Reliability and validity of a brief measure of sensation seeking

Abstract We developed a self-report measure of sensation seeking, a dispositional risk factor for various problem behaviors. In two studies, we administered the Brief Sensation Seeking Scale (BSSS) to more than 7000 adolescents. Study 1 participants completed a paper-and-pencil form of the BSSS in mass-testing sessions. Psychometric analyses of the resultant data revealed suitable item characteristics and internal consistency of responses to the items across age (13–17 years), sex, and ethnic categories. Study 2 participants, who completed the BSSS individually in an interview format, also provided data on their perceptions of and experiences with licit and illicit drugs as well as a series of additional risk and protective factors. Scores on the full BSSS correlated inversely with negative attitudes toward drug use and positively with drug use; sensation seeking as measured by the BSSS was a particularly strong predictor of the intention to try marijuana in the future. BSSS scores were reliably and predictably associated with other risk and protective factors.

Relations Between Gratifications Sought and Obtained A Study of Television News

This study investigated the relationship between gratifications sought (GS) from television news and gratifications obtained (GO) from network evening news programs Each GS correlated moderately to strongly with its corre sponding GO for the respondents most-watched program. Correlations between each GS and noncorresponding GOs were generally much lower. In addition, the degree of dependence on a particular program was posi tively related to the strength of the GS versus GO relationship. The differ ences in the GS and GO factor structures appear attributable to medium and program content characteristics. The findings indicate considerable promise for a sought versus obtained conceptualization of uses and gratifi cations.

A 10-year systematic review of HIV/AIDS mass communication campaigns: have we made progress?

The purpose of the current study was to conduct a 10-year systematic review of HIV/AIDS mass communication campaigns focused on sexual behavior, HIV testing, or both (1998–2007) and to compare the results with the last comprehensive review of such campaigns, conducted by Myhre and Flora (2000). A comprehensive search strategy yielded 38 HIV/AIDS campaign evaluation articles published in peer-reviewed journals, representing 34 distinct campaign efforts conducted in 23 countries. The articles were coded on a variety of campaign design and evaluation dimensions by two independent coders. Results indicated that compared with the previous systematic review (1986–1998 period), campaigns increasingly have employed the following strategies: (1) targeted defined audiences developed through audience segmentation procedures; (2) designed campaign themes around behavior change (rather than knowledge change); (3) used behavioral theories; (4) achieved high message exposure; (5) used stronger research designs for outcome evaluation; and (6) included measures of behavior (or behavioral intentions) in outcome assessments. In addition, an examination of 10 campaign efforts that used more rigorous quasi-experimental designs revealed that the majority (8 of 10) demonstrated effects on behavior change or behavioral intentions. Despite these positive developments, most HIV/AIDS campaigns continue to use weak (i.e., preexperimental) outcome evaluation designs. Implications of these results for improved design, implementation, and evaluation of HIV/AIDS campaign efforts are discussed.

GRATIFICATIONS SOUGHT AND MEDIA EXPOSURE An Expectancy Value Model

The results of this investigation of television news support an expectancy value conceptualization that gratifications sought from a media object are a function of a persons beliefs that the object possesses certain attributes mediated by the subjective evaluations of these attributes. The findings parallel those in the expectancy value literature in that the addition of attribute importance to the model adds little to its predictive power. The data also support a prediction (derived from Fishbeins theory) that a belief x evaluation index will have an indirect impact (through gratifications sought) on media exposure. Implications for a uses and gratifications theory of media consumption are discussed.

Uses and Gratifications and Exposure To Public Television: A Discrepancy Approach

A consistent problem with uses and gratifications research has been the failure to distinguish between gratifications sought and gratifications obtained. This study tested a discrepancy model constrasting gratifications sought from television in general with gratifications respondents perceived they obtained (or would obtain) from public television. The model successfully predicted level of exposure to PTV content among respondents who made their own decisions concerning what programs to watch. Level of exposure was unrelated to the discrepancy measure among those who let others make the viewing decision. When each gratification was considered individually, the discrepancy model successfully discriminated between viewers and nonviewers of PTV on 8 of 11 gratification items. The results also indicate the importance of social determinants of the viewing decision and perceptions of PTV content as predictors of PTV consumption.

Sensation seeking, perceived message sensation value, personal involvement, and processing of anti-marijuana PSAs

Drug prevention research has demonstrated the effectiveness of high sensation value messages in influencing drug-related attitudes and behaviors of high sensation seekers (HSS). While there is insight into what kinds of messages are most effective in persuading HSS, we have much less understanding of the cognitive and affective processes which lead to such outcomes. This study assessed the influence of perceived message sensation value and personal involvement with marijuana on how 386 adolescent participants processed the arguments, storylines, and audio and visual elements in anti-marijuana PSAs. Three types of processing - cognitive, narrative, and sensory-were investigated. The findings suggest that perceived message sensation value is influential in mitigating the inhibiting influence of personal involvement among high sensation seekers on message processing. The practical and theoretical implications of these findings are discussed.

Development and validation of a parasocial interaction measure: The audience‐persona interaction scale

This research attempted to develop a multidimensional measure of parasocial interaction. A 47‐item questionnaire derived from qualitative responses was submitted to principal components analysis ‐ resulting in a 22‐item, four‐factor Audience Persona Interaction (API) Scale. The four sub‐scales were: Identification with Favorite character, Interest in Favorite character, Group Identification/Interaction, and Favorite Characters Problem Solving Ability. In the initial analysis, the index and its subscales were found to be very reliable and positively correlated to program exposure level. In an additional construct validity test, mild linear relationships were found between PSI ‐as measured by the API Scale ‐ and viewing level.

MERGING USES AND GRATIFICATIONS AND EXPECTANCY-VALUE THEORY

This investigation provides support for a process model of uses and gratifications based upon an expectancy-value approach. Results of the study supported the hypothesis that gratifications obtained are strongly related to the beliefs about media attributes but are not related to evaluations of those attributes. Also, the belief X evaluation products are correlated with gratifications obtained. When controls were instituted for certain intervening variables posited by the model, the hypothesized reductions in various relationships occurred. The model has significant implications for media consumption processes. Further, the results demonstrated that gratifications sought and obtained may be measured at the same level of abstraction, contrary to earlier speculation.

An activation model of information exposure

This paper outlines and tests a two‐stage activation model of information exposure. A fundamental postulate is that human beings have individual levels of need for activation or arousal. If activation falls below or exceeds this level, individuals will tend to experience a negative affective state and will turn away from a given source of information. If activation remains within some acceptable range, the affective state will be more pleasant and individuals will continue to expose themselves to the information. The findings offer support for two of three hypothesized interactions at the first stage of the model, which predicts affective state, and for a hypothesized main effect at the second stage, which predicts exposure.

Agenda-Setting With Local and National Issues

Three factors lead to the hypothesis that agenda-setting should be weaker at the local political level compared to the national level: (1) the more directly observable nature of local political problems, (2) the nature and strength of local interpersonal political communication networks, and (3) the relatively heavier media coverage of national political issues. This hypothesis was supported with data from respondents assigned at random to either local or national issue conditions and from a content analysis of television and newspaper coverage in Toledo, Ohio, of local and national issues. Contrary to the findings of certain previous studies, network television was found to exercise a stronger agenda-setting influence than newspapers at the national level. Newspapers, on the other hand, were the dominant agenda-setter at the local level. The relative agenda-setting influences of television versus newspapers are consistent with other data from this study concerning the relative strengths of the various media as sources of issue information.