Pierre Legrain

The minimum information required for reporting a molecular interaction experiment (MIMIx)

A wealth of molecular interaction data is available in the literature, ranging from large-scale datasets to a single interaction confirmed by several different techniques. These data are all too often reported either as free text or in tables of variable format, and are often missing key pieces of information essential for a full understanding of the experiment. Here we propose MIMIx, the minimum information required for reporting a molecular interaction experiment. Adherence to these reporting guidelines will result in publications of increased clarity and usefulness to the scientific community and will support the rapid, systematic capture of molecular interaction data in public databases, thereby improving access to valuable interaction data.

Characterization of Sm-like proteins in yeast and their association with U6 snRNA

Seven Sm proteins associate with U1, U2, U4 and U5 spliceosomal snRNAs and influence snRNP biogenesis. Here we describe a novel set of Sm‐like (Lsm) proteins in Saccharomyces cerevisiae that interact with each other and with U6 snRNA. Seven Lsm proteins co‐immunoprecipitate with the previously characterized Lsm4p (Uss1p) and interact with each other in two‐hybrid analyses. Free U6 and U4/U6 duplexed RNAs co‐immunoprecipitate with seven of the Lsm proteins that are essential for the stable accumulation of U6 snRNA. Analyses of U4/U6 di‐snRNPs and U4/U6·U5 tri‐snRNPs in Lsm‐depleted strains suggest that Lsm proteins may play a role in facilitating conformational rearrangements of the U6 snRNP in the association–dissociation cycle of spliceosome complexes. Thus, Lsm proteins form a complex that differs from the canonical Sm complex in its RNA association(s) and function. We discuss the possible existence and functions of alternative Lsm complexes, including the likelihood that they are involved in processes other than pre‐mRNA splicing.

Genome-wide protein interaction screens reveal functional networks involving Sm-like proteins

A set of seven structurally related Sm proteins forms the core of the snRNP particles containing the spliceosomal U1, U2, U4 and U5 snRNAs. A search of the genomic sequence of Saccharomyces cerevisiae has identified a number of open reading frames that potentially encode structurally similar proteins termed Lsm (Like Sm) proteins. With the aim of analysing all possible interactions between the Lsm proteins and any protein encoded in the yeast genome, we performed exhaustive and iterative genomic two‐hybrid screens, starting with the Lsm proteins as baits. Indeed, extensive interactions amongst eight Lsm proteins were found that suggest the existence of a Lsm complex or complexes. These Lsm interactions apparently involve the conserved Sm domain that also mediates interactions between the Sm proteins. The screens also reveal functionally significant interactions with splicing factors, in particular with Prp4 and Prp24, compatible with genetic studies and with the reported association of Lsm proteins with spliceosomal U6 and U4/U6 particles. In addition, interactions with proteins involved in mRNA turnover, such as Mrt1, Dcp1, Dcp2 and Xrn1, point to roles for Lsm complexes in distinct RNA metabolic processes, that are confirmed in independent functional studies. These results provide compelling evidence that two‐hybrid screens yield functionally meaningful information about protein–protein interactions and can suggest functions for uncharacterized proteins, especially when they are performed on a genome‐wide scale. Copyright

A genomic approach of the hepatitis C virus generates a protein interaction map

The hepatitis C virus (HCV) causes severe liver disease, including liver cancer. A vaccine preventing HCV infection has not yet been developed, and, given the increasing number of infected people, this virus is now considered a major public-health problem. The HCV genome is a plus-stranded RNA that encodes a single polyprotein processed into at least 10 mature polypeptides. So far, only the interaction between the protease NS3 and its cofactor, NS4A, which is involved in the processing of the non-structural region, has been extensively studied. Our work was aimed at constructing a protein interaction map of HCV. A classical two-hybrid system failed to detect any interactions between mature HCV polypeptides, suggesting incorrect folding, expression or targetting of these proteins. We therefore developed a two-hybrid strategy, based on exhaustive screens of a random genomic HCV library. Using this method, we found known interactions, such as the capsid homodimer and the protease dimer, NS3-NS4A, as well as several novel interactions such as NS4A-NS2. Thus, our results are consistent with the idea that the use of a random genomic HCV library allows the selection of correctly folded viral protein fragments. Interacting domains of the viral polyprotein are identified, opening the possibility of developing specific anti-viral agents, based on their ability to modulate these interactions.

Processing of a dicistronic small nucleolar RNA precursor by the RNA endonuclease Rnt1

Small nucleolar RNAs (snoRNAs) are intron encoded or expressed from monocistronic independent transcription units, or, in the case of plants, from polycistronic clusters. We show that the snR190 and U14 snoRNAs from the yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae are co‐transcribed as a dicistronic precursor which is processed by the RNA endonuclease Rnt1, the yeast ortholog of bacterial RNase III. RNT1 disruption results in a dramatic decrease in the levels of mature U14 and snR190 and in accumulation of dicistronic snR190–U14 RNAs. Addition of recombinant Rnt1 to yeast extracts made from RNT1 disruptants induces the chase of dicistronic RNAs into mature snoRNAs, showing that dicistronic RNAs correspond to functional precursors stalled in the processing pathway. Rnt1 cleaves a dicistronic transcript in vitro in the absence of other factors, separating snR190 from U14. Thus, one of the functions of eukaryotic RNase III is, as for the bacterial enzyme, to liberate monocistronic RNAs from polycistronic transcripts.

Identification of the Helicobacter pylori anti‐σ28 factor

Flagellar motility is essential for colonization of the human gastric mucosa by Helicobacter pylori. The flagellar filament is composed of two subunits, FlaA and FlaB. Transcription of the genes encoding these proteins is controlled by the σ28 and σ54 factors of RNA polymerase respectively. The expression of flagellar genes is regulated, but no σ28‐specific effector was identified. It was also unclear whether H. pylori possessed a checkpoint for flagellar synthesis, and no gene encoding an anti‐σ28 factor, FlgM, could be identified by sequence similarity searches. To investigate the σ28‐dependent regulation, a new approach based on genomic data was used. Two‐hybrid screening with the H. pylori proteins identified a protein of unknown function (HP1122) interacting with the σ28 factor and defined the C‐terminal part of HP1122 (residues 48–76) as the interaction domain. HP1122 interacts with region 4 of σ28 and prevents its association with the β‐region of H. pylori RNA polymerase. Thus, HP1122 presented the characteristics of an anti‐σ28 factor. This was confirmed in H. pylori by RNA dot‐blot hybridization and electron microscopy. The level of σ28‐dependent flaA transcription was higher in a HP1122‐deficient strain and was decreased by the overproduction of HP1122. The overproduction of HP1122 also resulted in H. pylori cells with highly truncated flagella. These results demonstrate that HP1122 is the H. pylori anti‐σ28 factor, FlgM, a major regulator of flagellum assembly. Potential anti‐σ28 factors were identified in Campylobacter jejuni, Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Thermotoga maritima by sequence homology with the C‐terminal region of HP1122.

Prediction, assessment and validation of protein interaction maps in bacteria.

High-throughput proteomics technologies, especially the yeast two-hybrid system, produce large volumes of protein-protein interaction data organized in networks. The complete sequencing of many genomes raises questions about the extent to which such networks can be transferred between organisms. We attempted to answer this question using the experimentally derived Helicobacter pylori interaction map and the recently described interacting domain profile pair (IDPP) method to predict a virtual map for Escherichia coli. The extensive literature concerning E.coli was used to assess all predicted interactions and to validate the IDPP method, which clusters protein domains by sequence and connectivity similarities. The IDPP method has a much better heuristic value than methods solely based on protein homology. The IDPP method was further applied to Campylobacter jejuni to generate a virtual interaction map. An in-depth comparison of the chemotaxis pathways predicted in E.coli and C.jejuni led to the proposition of new functional assignments. Finally, the prediction of protein-protein interaction maps across organisms enabled us to validate some of the interactions on the original experimental map.

Characterization of the interaction partners of secreted proteins and chaperones of Shigella flexneri

The type III secretion (TTS) system of Gram‐negative pathogenic bacteria is composed of proteins that assemble into the TTS machinery, proteins that are secreted by this machinery and specific chaperones that are required for storage and sometimes secretion of these proteins. Many sequential protein interactions are involved in the TTS pathway to deliver effector proteins to host cells. We used the yeast two‐hybrid system to investigate the interaction partners of the Shigella flexneri effectors and chaperones. Libraries of preys containing random fusions with fragments of the TTS proteins were screened using effectors and chaperones as baits. Interactions between the effectors IpaB and IpaC and their chaperone IpgC were detected by this method, and interaction domains were identified. Using a His‐tagged IpgC protein to co‐purify truncated IpaB and IpaC proteins, we showed that the chaperone‐binding domain was unique and located in the N‐terminus of these proteins. This domain was not required for the secretion of recombinant proteins but was involved in the stability of IpaC and instability of IpaB. Homotypic interactions were identified with the baits IpaA, IpaB and IpaC. Interactions between effectors and components of the TTS machinery were also selected that might give insights into regulation of the TTS process.

In vivo commitment to splicing in yeast involves the nucleotide upstream from the branch site conserved sequence and the Mud2 protein

Pre‐mRNA splicing is a stepwise nuclear process involving intron recognition and the assembly of the spliceosome followed by intron excision. We previously developed a pre‐mRNA export assay that allows the discrimination between early steps of spliceosome formation and splicing per se. Here we present evidence that these two assays detect different biochemical defects for point mutations. Mutations at the 5′ splice site lead to pre‐mRNA export, whereas 3′ splice site mutations do not. A genetic screen applied to mutants in the branch site region shows that all positions in the conserved TACTAAC sequence are important for intron recognition. An exhaustive analysis of pre‐mRNA export and splicing defects of these mutants shows that the in vivo recognition of the branch site region does not involve the base pairing of U2 snRNA with the pre‐mRNA. In addition, the nucleotide preceding the conserved TACTAAC sequence contributes to the recognition process. We show that a T residue at this position allows for optimal intron recognition and that in natural introns, this nucleotide is also used preferentially. Moreover, the Mud2 protein is involved in the recognition of this nucleotide, thus establishing a role for this factor in the in vivo splicing pathway.

Functional Conservation of the Transportin Nuclear Import Pathway in Divergent Organisms

ABSTRACT Human transportin1 (hTRN1) is the nuclear import receptor for a group of pre-mRNA/mRNA-binding proteins (heterogeneous nuclear ribonucleoproteins [hnRNP]) represented by hnRNP A1, which shuttle continuously between the nucleus and the cytoplasm. hTRN1 interacts with the M9 region of hnRNP A1, a 38-amino-acid domain rich in Gly, Ser, and Asn, and mediates the nuclear import of M9-bearing proteins in vitro. Saccharomyces cerevisiae transportin (yTRN; also known as YBR017c or Kap104p) has been identified and cloned. To understanding the nuclear import mediated by yTRN, we searched with a yeast two-hybrid system for proteins that interact with it. In an exhaustive screen of the S. cerevisiae genome, the most frequently selected open reading frame was the nuclear mRNA-binding protein, Nab2p. We delineated a ca.-50-amino-acid region in Nab2p, termed NAB35, which specifically binds yTRN and is similar to the M9 motif. NAB35 also interacts with hTRN1 and functions as a nuclear localization signal in mammalian cells. Interestingly, yTRN can also mediate the import of NAB35-bearing proteins into mammalian nuclei in vitro. We also report on additional substrates for TRN as well as sequences of Drosophila melanogaster, Xenopus laevis, and Schizosaccharomyces pombe TRNs. Together, these findings demonstrate that both the M9 signal and the nuclear import machinery utilized by the transportin pathway are conserved in evolution.