R. Kerrich

Microstructural and chemical transformations accompanying deformation of granite in a shear zone at Miville, Switzerland; with implications for stress corrosion cracking and superplastic flow

At Miéville, in the Aiguilles-Rouges Massif, granitic rocks of the basement are deformed into mylonites within a major subvertical shear zone. The ambient temperature during translation is estimated at 250° C±30° C from fluid inclusion filling temperatures in syntectonic microveins, from Δ18O quartzilmenite of+15%, and from mineralogical criteria. Porphyroclasts of both oligoclase and orthoclase feldspar decrease from initial diameters of 20 mm and assume elliptical shapes during progressive deformation, due to recrystallisation of the margins to ultra-fine polygonal grains which extend out from the porphyroclasts in thin trails: the final stable grain size is <5 μ. The recrystallised feldspar has a composition of the parent porphyroclast,+albite, requiring relative gains of Na and losses of K+Ca compared to the precursor, and implying short range redistribution of the components during deformation. Decrease of free energy associated with the deformation catalysed change in feldspar composition, coupled with stored strain energy in the porphyroclasts may account for recrystallisation to a stable aggregate of ultrafine grain size. The long trails imply exceptionally high ductility, which, coupled with microstructural criteria, and admixture of quartz from neighbouring pure quartz aggregates by grain boundary sliding, is interpreted in terms of superplastic flow. Estimated temperatures of T/Tm≈0.2 for the inferred superplastic deformation is lower by a factor of 2 than previously recorded for this flow michanism in silicates. The feldspar and quartz probably accomodated grain boundary sliding by intercrystalline diffusion.Biotite responds to deformation by bendgliding, kinking, and recrystallisation in mantles. The reaction of high-Ti parent grains to low-Ti biotite+Fe-muscovite+ ilmenite+chlorite is catalysed at all of these microstructural sites. Progressive deformation of the fine-grained products in the mantles is coupled with steady reaction to low-Fe muscovite+epidote+ sphene+rutile resulting in exceptionally ductile trails, as for the case of feldspar.Biotite grains have pervasive networks of nondisplacive intragranular fractures. At the fracture tips increase of the stress intensity has catalysed the reaction of high-Ti parent grains to low-Ti biotite+muscovite+ ilmenite which occupy the fractures. The fractures propagate and coalesce resulting in mechanical breakdown of the parent grains: these microstructures are believed to be examples of natural stress corrosion cracking. These features are also abundant in feldspar porphyroclasts where at fracture tips orthoclase→secondary orthoclase+albite, and oligoclase→secondary oligoclase+albite. Stress corrosion cracking may be significant in the steady state deformation of crustal rocks at low temperatures when intracrystalline plasticity is not generally dominant.Two way mass balance calculations utilising major and selected trace element data, reveal that deformation of the granite was essentially isochemical, involving average additions of <1 % H2O+CO2, at approximately constant specific gravity. The parameters Fe2+/∑Fe and δ18Owhole rock maintain relatively constant values across the shear zone, and this also implies limited participation of fluids in the deformation. Alkali elements and titanium display the largest percentage variation during progressive deformation, whereas SiO2, Al2O3, and P2O5, together with V, Ni, Cr,Y,Zr, and Nb remain relatively constant. All variations decrease at increasing states of deformation and this is interpreted in terms of mechanical mixing of chemical inhomogeneities of the granite precursor within the shear zone. Constraints imposed by variations in abundance of the relatively immobile elements imply that volume changes accompanying deformation in the shear zone were less than ±10%.

Local modification of rock chemistry by deformation

Metabasalts subjected to progressive deformation in large-scale shear zones at Yellowknife display corresponding changes in major element abundances. Deformation, under conditions of greenschist facies metamorphism, has involved grain size reduction from 1200 μm to <20 μm, depletion of SiO2 (≃5%) and Na2O, together with hydration, and a decrease in specific gravity from 2.97 to 2.80. Chemical redistribution by deformation has been accomplished through a decrease in grain diameter of quartz and albite by intercrystalline diffusive mass transport (pressure solution), with concomitant transfer of material into extension veins. The degree of chemical modification is related to the finite strain. Deformation has involved a redistribution of ∼7.1015g of SiO2 over a volume of about 50km3.The microstructure of an adamellite deformed in a shear zone at higher temperature, under conditions of amphibolite facies metamorphism is indicative of dominant dislocation creep. A low degree of tectonic grain refinement is present. Constant values of major element abundances and specific gravity determined across the shear zone at increasing states of strain imply isochemical and isovolumetric deformation. These results are taken to support the precept that crustal deformation is characterised by a low temperature deformation regime dominated by pressure solution, with local changes of rock chemistry and volume; and a high temperature regime in which strain is accommodated principally by dislocation creep, an isochemical and isovolumetric deformation mechanism.

Some effects of tectonic recrystallisation on fluid inclusions in vein quartz

Filling temperature data obtained from tectonic vein quartz varies according to the state of intracrystalline deformation. Strain free domains within grains exhibit abundant primary fluid inclusions, from which internally consistent temperatures are recorded. The onset of optical features associated with intracrystalline deformation by dislocation creep is accompanied by a decrease in the number of fluid inclusions and an increase of filling temperatures. At higher states of strain tectonic recrystallisation, evidenced by the formation of new subgrains, leads to the complete destruction of inclusion arrays. Empty cavities are swept out of the new grains during recrystallisation, into subgrain walls.Heterogeneous deformation of vein quartz at the intracrystalline level may be due in part to selective hydrolytic weakening in areas where fluid inclusions have leaked and thereby increased the structural water content.

Adularia, the characteristic mineral of felsic spilites

Sea floor rhyolites from the Iberian Pyrite Belt show strong enrichment in potassium and adularia is observed to replace plagioclase. This process is in accord with thermodynamic data for the exchange reaction with ocean water which favours adularia up to about 140° C. Archaean felsic intrusives and extrusives exhibit sodium enrichment, a contrast which we attribute to lower K levels in sea water and, or, higher ocean temperatures. All of these rocks show 18O enrichment of + 6 to + 8‰, in compliance with low temperature sea water exchange.

Sea Water Basalt Interaction in Spilites From the Iberian Pyrite Belt

Low grade hydrothermally metamorphosed mafic rocks from the Iberian Pyrite Belt are enriched in 18O relative to the oxygen isotopic ratio of fresh basalt (+6.5±1‰). The observed δ18O whole rock values range from +0.87‰ to +15.71‰ corresponding to positive isotopic shifts of +5‰ to +10‰, thus requiring isotopic exchange with fluids under conditions of high water:rock ratios at low temperatures. The lowest δ18O observed corresponds to an albitized dolerite still and is compatible with independent geochemical data suggesting lower water: rock ratios for the alteration of these rocks.The isotope data are consistent with the hypothesis that the spilites from the Pyrite Belt were produced by interaction of basaltic material with sea water.Significant leaching of transition metals from the mafic rocks during alteration coupled with available sulphur isotopic data for the sulphide ores also suggest that sea water may have played an important role in the formation of ore deposits in the Iberian Pyrite Belt.

Superplastic flow and changes in crystal chemistry of feldspars

Abstract Comparison of observed microstructures and deduced physical parameters of natural deformations with those encountered in superplastic metals permits identification of superplastic behaviour in rocks. From microstructural evidence, superplastic flow of feldspar is inferred to have occurred in the deformation of a granite from Mieville, Aiguilles-Rouges massif, Switzerland. The original igneous orthoclase and oligoclase phenocrysts have both recrystallised to fine-grained albite which has deformed by superplastic flow. This change in crystal chemistry was associated with a large negative change in free energy, enabling recrystallised grains of a very small size to be stable under the prevailing conditions, thereby producing the pre-requisite conditions for superplastic behaviour.

Origin of peralkaline granites of Saudi Arabia

Small volumes of peralkaline granites were generated as the final phase of a Pan African calc-alkaline igneous event which built the Arabian Peninsula. The peralkaline granites are closely associated with trends or sutures related to ophiolites. Peralkaline rocks are chemically heterogeneous, with anomalous abundances of Zr (average 2,150 ppm±2,600 1σ), Y (200±190), and Nb (105±100), representing up to ten-fold enrichments of these elements relative to abundances in calc alkaline granite counterparts. Large enrichments of some rare earth elements and fluorine are also present.The peralkaline granites have scattered whole rock 18O values, averaging 8.7±0.6% in the Hadb Aldyaheen Complex and 10.7±1% in the Jabal Sayid Complex. Quartz-albite fractionations of 0.5 to 1.5% signify that the heavier whole rock δ-values probably represent the oxygen isotope composition of the peralkaline magma. Small variable enrichments of 18O, in conjunction with slightly elevated 87Sr/86Sr initial ratios relative to broadly contemporaneous calc alkaline granites, are both suggestive of a small degree of involvement of crustal, or crustal derived material in the peralkaline magmas. It is proposed that the peculiar magma genesis is associated with a relaxation event which followed continental collision and underthrusting of salt rich sediments.

Corundum, Cr-muscovite rocks at O'Briens, Zimbabwe: the conjunction of hydrothermal desilicification and LIL-element enrichment — geochemical and isotopic evidence

Monomineralic domains of chlorite, corundum and Cr muscovite coexist over a kilometer scale within ultramafic schists of the Harare greenstone belt (2.73 Ga). This exotic lithological association includes the conjunction of some of the most aluminous (Al2O3∼88 wt%) and potassic (K2O∼10 wt%) rocks known. The paragenetic sequence developed from chlorite→corundum→corundum+ diaspore: Cr muscovite variably overprinted both the corundum and chloritite domains. Terminal stages were marked by sporadic production of andalusite+quartz, and finally margarite.Chlorite (Cr2O3=0.31–2.65 wt%), corundum (0.79–2.66 wt%), and diaspore are all Cr-rich varieties. The chromian (Cr2O3∼3.86 wt%) paragonitic muscovite incorporates up to 17% of the paragonite molecule, and significant Mg and Fe substitutions.The suite of rocks are characterized by ‘chondritic’ Ti/Zr ratios (−x=107), systematically enhanced Cr (up to 14000 ppm) and Ni (up to 1200 ppm) abundances, low levels of the alteration-insensitive incompatible elements Th, Ta, Nb. Chlorite, corundum and Cr muscovite represent progressive stages in the incremental metasomatic alteration of a komatiite precursor. Mass balance calculations, constrained by the isochemical behaviour of Ti, Zr and Hf reveal that the komatiite chloritite transformation involved volumetric contractions of ∼60% by hydrothermal leaching of Si, Fe, Mn, Ca and Na. Reaction of chloritite to corundum involved further volumetric reductions of ∼50% due to essentially quantitative loss of Si, Fe, Mn, Mg, K and Ca. Conversion of corundum to muscovite required additions of Si, K, Fe, Mn, Mg, Rb and Ba at 50–200% dilation. K, Rb, Ba, Li and Cs are enriched by up to 2×103 over background abundances in ultramafic rocks, and the suite is also enriched in B, Se, Te, Bi, As, Sb and Au. REE were extensively leached during chloritite-corundum stages, whereas LREE additions accompany development of muscovite. Ti, Zr, Hf and Al were all concentrated by selective leaching of mobile components, but absolute additions of Al accompanied development of the corundum domains due to Al precipitation in response to depressurization.Corundum (δ18O=3.5–4.8), muscovite (δ18O=6.7–7.5‰) and chlorite (4.5–5.6‰) are isotopically uniform and formed at 380–520° C from a fluid where δ18O=5.6–6.9‰. The corundum is 18O depleted relative to either igneous or anatectic counterparts (δOcor=7.6–8.2), or to gibbsitic laterites (δ18O=12–17).Previous genetic schemes involving metamorphism of exhalites or bauxite, or Si-undersaturation of magmas, can all be ruled out from the data. The chloritite, corundum, Cr-muscovite association represents sequential alteration products of ultramafic rocks by high temperature, low pH hydrothermal solutions carrying LIL-elements, and in which excursions of pH and/or degree of quartz undersaturation account for the mineralogical transitions. A deep level acid epithermal system, or fluid advection across steep inverted thermal gradients in a thrust regime could account for required hydrothermal conditions.

Mineral reactions participating in intragranular fracture propagation: implications for stress corrosion cracking

Two examples of mineral reactions accompanying intragranular fracturing of silicates are described from amphibolites at the Grenville front, Coniston, Ontario, and a granodiorite within the Mieville shear zone, Switzerland. At these localities coarse grained (> 1 mm) hornblende and biotite respectively have undergone initial deformation by intense transgranular fracturing. The ambient temperature of deformation is estimated at 400–500°C for the amphibolites, and 250–300°C for the granodiorite. Fracture intensity within hornblende increases with progressive deformation until fractures coalesce and grains lose cohesion. Fractures are occupied by hornblende in close optical continuity with the parent grain, and typically contain median sutures decorated by arrays of solid inclusions. Relative to the parent grain, hornblende in fractures is depleted in Ti, Al, plus K, and enriched in Mg. Given the preferential partitioning of Mg, AlVI and Ti into the M2 site of calcic amphiboles, the decrease of Ti and AlVI in the host-to-crack transition is consistent with the corresponding increase of the Mg/(Mg + Fe2+) ratio. Fractures within biotite are bounded by an envelope of paler brown biotite which corresponds to a decrease of Ti and increase of Fe + Mg relative to regions unaffected by cracking. Fractures are occupied by secondary ilmenite, low-Ti biotite and high-Ti muscovite. Ti and Al do not vary significantly as a function of Mg/(Fe + Mg) in the host-to-crack transition, as anticipated from the approximately equal partitioning of these two cations into the M1 and M2 octahedral cation sites. The direct relationship of the mineral reactions to the fractures is taken as evidence for the participation of the reactions in crack propagation. These features may thus represent examples of natural stress corrosion cracking.

PERALKALINE GRANITE IN THE WESTERN PART OF THE ARABIAN SHIELD

Some of the post-tectonic granites ( ca. 500 Ma) which intrude diorites and metamorphic rocks of the Precambrian Hulayfah Group in the western part of the Arabian Shield are peralkaline; and Hadb-Aldyaheen riebeckite granite and granite porphyry ring complex and the Jabal Sayid riebeckite granite are typical examples. The rocks are porphyritic, consisting of rounded and bipyramidal quartz, laths of albite (An 0.1 to An 0.5 ), microcline (or 96%) and microperthite, riebeckite and aegerine prisms; with accessory zircon, fluorite, hematite, apatite, sphene and allanite. Ca and Mg contents are consistently low, Na is relatively abundant, and weight percentage of Na 2 O exceeds that of K 2 O. There is a deficiency of Al relative to alkalies and the ratio of molecular proportions of alkalies to Al (A.I) is between 1.02 and 1.22. Acmite is a normative mineral in all rocks analysed and some samples have normative sodium metasilicate. Rb, Zr, Y, and Nb are significantly abundant, Ba and Sr are extremely depleted. There is no systematic variation of major or minor element abundances relative to SiO 2 content, D.I., or D.I. + ac + ns. Whole rock δ 18 O values range from 10 to 16%. These data appear to preclude genesis by magmatic differentiation only and suggest an origin by contamination of extremely differentiated granite magma derived by partial melting of the crust and late stage alkali metasomatism.