R. P. Scudder

Geochemical approaches to the quantification of dispersed volcanic ash in marine sediment

Volcanic ash has long been recognized in marine sediment, and given the prevalence of oceanic and continental arc volcanism around the globe in regard to widespread transport of ash, its presence is nearly ubiquitous. However, the presence/absence of very fine-grained ash material, and identification of its composition in particular, is challenging given its broad classification as an “aluminosilicate” component in sediment. Given this challenge, many studies of ash have focused on discrete layers (that is, layers of ash that are of millimeter-to-centimeter or greater thickness, and their respective glass shards) found in sequences at a variety of locations and timescales and how to link their presence with a number of Earth processes. The ash that has been mixed into the bulk sediment, known as dispersed ash, has been relatively unstudied, yet represents a large fraction of the total ash in a given sequence. The application of a combined geochemical and statistical technique has allowed identification of this dispersed ash as part of the original ash contribution to the sediment. In this paper, we summarize the development of these geochemical/statistical techniques and provide case studies from the quantification of dispersed ash in the Caribbean Sea, equatorial Pacific Ocean, and northwest Pacific Ocean. These geochemical studies (and their sedimentological precursors of smear slides) collectively demonstrate that local and regional arc-related ash can be an important component of sedimentary sequences throughout large regions of the ocean.

Regional-scale input of dispersed and discrete volcanic ash to the Izu-Bonin and Mariana subduction zones

We have geochemically and statistically characterized bulk marine sediment and ash layers at Ocean Drilling Program Site 1149 (Izu-Bonin Arc) and Deep Sea Drilling Project Site 52 (Mariana Arc), and have quantified that multiple dispersed ash sources collectively comprise ~30-35% of the hemipelagic sediment mass entering the Izu-Bonin-Mariana subduction system. Multivariate statistical analyses indicate that the bulk sediment at Site 1149 is a mixture of Chinese Loess, a second compositionally distinct eolian source, a dispersed mafic ash, and a dispersed felsic ash. We interpret the source of these ashes as respectively being basalt from the Izu-Bonin Front Arc (IBFA) and rhyolite from the Honshu Arc. Sr-, Nd-, and Pb isotopic analyses of the bulk sediment are consistent with the chemical/statistical-based interpretations. Comparison of the mass accumulation rate of the dispersed ash component to discrete ash layer parameters (thickness, sedimentation rate, and number of layers) suggests that eruption frequency, rather than eruption size, drives the dispersed ash record. At Site 52, the geochemistry and statistical modeling indicates that Chinese Loess, IBFA, dispersed BNN (boninite from Izu-Bonin), and a dispersed felsic ash of unknown origin are the sources. At Site 1149 the ash layers and the dispersed ash are compositionally coupled, whereas at Site 52 they are decoupled in that there are no boninite layers, yet boninite is dispersed within the sediment. Changes in the volcanic and eolian inputs through time indicate strong arc- and climate-related controls.

Large volume submarine ignimbrites in the Shikoku Basin: An example for explosive volcanism in the Western Pacific during the Late Miocene

During IODP Expedition 322, an interval of Late Miocene (7.6 to ∼9.1 Ma) tuffaceous and volcaniclastic sandstones was discovered in the Shikoku Basin (Site C0011B), Nankai region. This interval consists of bioturbated silty claystone including four 1–7 m thick interbeds of tuffaceous sandstones (TST) containing 57–82% (by volume) pyroclasts. We use major and trace element glass compositions, as well as radiogenic isotope compositions, to show that the tuffaceous sandstones beds derived from single eruptive events, and that the majority (TST 1, 2, 3a) came from different eruptions from a similar source region, which we have identified to be the Japanese mainland, 350 km away. In particular, diagnostic trace element ratios (e.g., Th/La, Sm/La, Rb/Hf, Th/Nb, and U/Th) and isotopic data indicate a marked contribution from a mantle source beneath continental crust, which is most consistent with a Japanese mainland source and likely excludes the Izu-Bonin island arc and back arc as a source region for the younger TST beds. Nevertheless, some of the chemical data measured on the oldest sandstone bed (TST 3b, Unit IIb) show affinity to or can clearly be attributed to an Izu-Bonin composition. While we cannot completely exclude the possibility that all TST beds derived from unknown and exotic Izu-Bonin source(s), the collected lines of evidence are most consistent with an origin from the paleo-Honshu arc for TST 1 through 3a. We therefore suggest the former collision zone between the Izu-Bonin arc and Honshu paleo-arc as the most likely region where the eruptive products entered the ocean, also concurrent with nearby (∼200 km) possible Miocene source areas for the tuffaceous sandstones at the paleo-NE-Honshu arc. Estimating the distribution area of the tuffaceous sandstones in the Miocene between this source region and the ∼350 km distant Expedition 322, using bathymetric constraints, we calculate that the sandstone beds represent minimum erupted magma volumes between ∼1 and 17 km3 (Dense Rock Equivalent (DRE)). We conclude that several large volume eruptions occurred during the Late Miocene time next to the collision zone of paleo-Honshu and Izu-Bonin arc and covered the entire Philippine Sea plate with meter thick, sheet-like pyroclastic deposits that are now subducted in the Nankai subduction zone.

Sedimentary inputs to the Nankai subduction zone: The importance of dispersed ash

We examine the importance of dispersed volcanic ash as a critical component of the aluminosilicate sediment entering the Nankai Trough, located south of Japan’s island of Honshu, via the subducting Philippine Sea plate. Multivariate statistical analyses of an extensive major, trace, and rare earth element data set from bulk sediment and discrete ash layers at Integrated Ocean Drilling Program (IODP) Sites C0011 and C0012 quantitatively determine the abundance and accumulation of multiple aluminosilicate inputs to the Nankai subduction zone. We identify the eolian input of continental material to both sites, and we further find that there are an additional three ash sources from Kyushu and Honshu, Japan and other regions. Some of these ash sources may themselves represent mixtures of ash inputs, although the final compositions appear statistically distinct. The dispersed ash comprises 38 ± 7 weight percent (wt%) of the bulk sediment at Site C0011, and 34 ± 4 wt% at Site C0012. When considering the entire sediment thickness at Site C0011, the dispersed ash component supplies 38000 ± 7000 g/cm2 of material to the Nankai subduction system, whereas Site C0012 supplies 20000 ± 3000 g/cm2. These values are enormous compared to the ~2500 g/cm2 (C0011) and ~1200 g/cm2 (C0012) of ash in the discrete ash layers. Therefore, the mass of volcanic ash and chemically equivalent alteration products (e.g., smectite) that are dispersed throughout the stratigraphic succession of bulk sediment appears to be up to 15–17 times greater than the mass of discrete ash layers. The composition of the dispersed ash component at Site C0011 appears linked to that of the discrete layers, and the mass accumulation rate for dispersed ash correlates best with discrete ash layer thickness. In contrast, at Site C0012 the mass accumulation rate for dispersed ash correlates better with the number of ash layers. Together, the discrete ash layers, dispersed ash, and clay-mineral assemblages present a complete record of volcanism and erosion of volcanic sources; and indicate that mass balances and subduction factory budgets should include the mass of dispersed ash for a more accurate assessment of volcanic contributions to large-scale geochemical cycling.