R. Vonk

The Negativity Effect in Trait Ratings and in Open-Ended Descriptions of Persons

Two studies addressed the differential impact of unexpected positive versus negative behaviors on trait ratings and free response impression descriptions, using a 2 (Expected Likability) x 2 (Consistency of Subsequent Behavior) design. Unexpected negative behaviors had more impact than unexpected positive behaviors. In Experiment 1, this negativity effect was produced by an increase in ratings on negative traits, rather than a decrease on positive traits. In Experiment 2, unexpected negative behaviors produced an increase in the number of negative traits mentioned in impression descriptions, as well as a decrease in the number of positive traits, suggesting that negative behaviors reduced the accessibility of positive traits. Unexpected positive behaviors increased the number of conditional qualifiers attached to positive attributes, indicating more elaboration in the impressions. Results illustrate that there is more to negativity effects than is revealed by global evaluative ratings.

Processing attitude statements from in-group and out-group members: Effects of within-group and within-person inconsistencies on reading times

The authors examined reading times of attitude statements made by group members as a function of consistency of statements with stereotypic expectancies (between-member) and consistency of statements with other statements from the same member (within-member). Stereotype-inconsistent statements were studied longer than consistent statements only when the target group was an outgroup or when subjects were instructed to focus on the group as a whole. Results suggested that the out-group was perceived as a single homogeneous whole regardless of experimental instructions. Inconsistencies within individual group members instigated the longest reading times. This effect was stronger for inconsistencies within out-group members than within in-group members, suggesting that subjects not only expected more within-group variability in in-groups than in out-groups, but they also expected more within-person variability.

Effects of Outcome Dependency on Correspondence Bias

The literature on correspondence bias suggests that the bias is increased when perceivers depend on an actor because they are motivated to know the actor’s dispositions and predict future behavior. However, outcome dependency produces enhanced attention and accuracy motivation, which should facilitate situational correction and reduce the correspondence bias. An experiment was conducted in which both participants’ dependency on an actor and the actor’s behavioral freedom were manipulated. The correspondence bias was reduced among dependent participants but only in judgments that were highly relevant to predicting behavior that could affect their own outcomes. This reduction of the correspondence bias was associated with longer reading times. Furthermore, it was more pronounced in conditions in which the potential costs of an inaccurate dispositional inference were higher.

The Source Effect: Person Descriptions by Self versus Others Have Differential Effects on Impression Formation

Self-presentation via favorable self-descriptions may not lead to the desired impression, whereas positive descriptions by others may be more effective because they seem less susceptible to motivated bias. In four experiments, we investigated whether person descriptions have more impact on impressions when provided by third parties than by targets themselves. Results showed that target impressions were consistently more in line with the target description when positive sociability-related or positive competency-related information was given by a third party than by the target. This source effect always occurred for ratings of claimed traits. In addition, ratings of the targets sociability were also affected when the claim was about competency. Source effects were not obtained for negative self-descriptions. The results are discussed in terms of the presumed underlying process on the basis of mediation data.

Effects of Behavioral Causes and Consequences on Person Judgments

Two scenario studies address the effects of the consequences of an actors behavior as a function of behavioral causes (dispositional, situational) and behavior valence. In Experiment 1, the behaviors were likeability related. As predicted, inferences were more extreme when the behaviors produced consequences for others than when they did not affect others-but only when the behaviors were likeable. In Experiment 2, the behaviors were ability related. Only incompetent behaviors were judged more extremely when they affected others. A parallel pattern of findings emerged for the effects of causes. Judgments were more extreme for dispositional than for situationally caused behaviors but only when the behaviors were likeable or incompetent. Thus, inferences of likeable and incompetent behaviors were affected by causes and consequences, but dislikeable and competent behaviors were perceived as informative regardless of their causes and consequences.