Rafael Ben-Michael

Single photon avalanche diodes (SPADs) for 1.5 μm photon counting applications

The paper reports on the design and characterization of InGaAs/InP single photon avalanche diodes (SPADs) for photon counting applications at wavelengths near 1.5 µm. It is shown how lower internal electric field amplitudes can lead to reduced dark count rates, but at the expense of degraded afterpulsing behaviour and larger timing jitter. Dark count rate behaviour provides evidence of thermally assisted tunnelling with an average thermal activation energy of ∼0.14 eV between 150 K and 220 K. Afterpulsing behaviour exhibits a structure-dependent afterpulsing activation energy, which quantifies how carrier de-trapping varies with temperature. SPAD performance simultaneously exhibits a dark count rate of 10 kHz at a detection efficiency of 20% with timing jitter of 100 ps at 200 K, and with appropriate performance tradeoffs, we demonstrate a 200 K dark count rate as low as 3 kHz, a detection efficiency as high as 45%, and a timing jitter as low as 30 ps.

InGaAsP–InP Avalanche Photodiodes for Single Photon Detection

In this paper, we describe the design, characterization, and modeling of InGaAsP/InP avalanche diodes designed for single photon detection at wavelengths of 1.55 and 1.06 mum. Through experimental and theoretical work, we investigate critical performance parameters of these single photon avalanche diodes (SPADs), including dark count rate (DCR), photon detection efficiency (PDE), and afterpulsing. The models developed for the simulation of device performance provide good agreement with experimental results for all parameters studied. For 1.55-mum SPADs, we report the relationship between DCR and PDE for gated mode operation under a variety of operating conditions. We also describe in detail the dependence of afterpulsing effects on numerous operating conditions, and in particular, we demonstrate and explain a universal functional form that describes the dependence of DCR on hold-off time at any temperature. For 1.06-mum SPADs, we present the experimentally determined relationship between DCR and detection efficiency for free-running operation, as well as simulations complementing the experimental data.

Afterpulsing Effects in Free-Running InGaAsP Single-Photon Avalanche Diodes

We demonstrate large-area (80 mum diameter) InP-based single-photon avalanche diodes for Geiger-mode operation at 1.06 mum with dark count rates of ~1000 Hz at high detection efficiencies of 30% at 237 K, as well as simulations of dark count rate and detection efficiency that provide good agreement with measured data. Experimental results obtained using free-running operation illustrate the strong impact of afterpulsing effects for short (~200 ns) hold-off times. We present an analysis of these free-running results that quantifies the contribution of afterpulsing to the total count rate.

Afterpulsing in InGaAs/InP single photon avalanche photodetectors

The effect of short gating pulses on after-pulsing in a single photon avalanche photodetector operating at a telecom wavelength of 1.5 mum is characterized and discussed. Comparison between short and longer overbias gate pulses shows that the number of carriers created with a 1 ns (short) gating pulse is lower than that of a 20 ns pulse, when the avalanche is dark-count generated

Geiger-Mode APD Single Photon Detectors

We present experimental and modeling results for InP-based avalanche photodiodes designed for single photon counting in the wavelength range of 0.95-1.65 μm. We describe performance trade-offs and underlying mechanisms governing key device characteristics.

Single photon avalanche photodiodes for near-infrared photon counting

InP-based single photon avalanche diodes (SPADs) have proven to be the most practical solution currently available for many applications requiring high-performance photon counting at near-infrared wavelengths between 1.0 and 1.6 µm. We describe recent progress in the design, characterization, and modeling of InP-based SPADs, particularly with respect to the dark count rate vs. photon detection efficiency metric of devices optimized for use at both 1.55 μm and 1.06 μm. In this context, we report for the first time dark count probabilities as low as 7 x 10-7 ns-1 for fiber-coupled 1.55 μm SPADs operated at 20% detection efficiency and 215 K. Additionally, because of the critical role played by afterpulsing in limiting photon counting rates, we describe recent characterization of the dependence of afterpulsing effects on SPAD operating conditions such as photon detection efficiency, repetition rate, and bias gate length.

InGaAs/InP Single Photon Avalanche Diode Design and Characterization

Single-photon avalanche diodes (SPAD) for 1550 nm wavelength can have InGaAs/InP structure similar to that of avalanche photodiodes of fiber optic systems, but for optimizing the device structure radically different criteria must be adopted. Such criteria are here discussed and a complete experimental characterization of the fabricated device is reported. Remarkable performance is verified also at moderately low temperature, as achieved with Peltier coolers

InGaAsP avalanche photodetectors for near IR single photon detection

Single photon detectors are key components for a wide range of applications in the near infrared (NIR) wavelength range between 1.0 and 1.7 μm. To achieve high performance single photon detection in the NIR wavelength range, single photon avalanche diodes (SPADs) based on the InGaAsP quarternary material system lattice-matched to InP are likely to provide the most appropriate solution in numerous situations. In this paper, we describe the design, characterization, and modeling of InGaAsP/InP avalanche diodes designed for single photon detection at wavelengths of 1.55 μm and 1.06 μm. Critical performance parameters of these SPADs, including dark count rate, photon detection efficiency, and afterpulsing have been studied both experimentally and theoretically. The models developed for the simulation of device performance provided good agreement with experimental results. The relationship between dark count rate and photon detection efficiency is investigated for 1.55 μm SPADs under gated mode operation and 1.06 μm SPADs under both gated mode and free-running operations. We also describe in detail the dependence of afterpulsing effects on numerous operating conditions.

InP-based single photon avalanche diodes

We describe recent results for the performance and modeling of InP-based single photon avalanche diodes. At 1.55 mum, dark count probabilities < 2 times 10-7 ns-1 have been achieved at 220 K for a photon detection efficiency of 15%.

Geiger-Mode Avalanche Photodiodes for Near-Infrared Photon Counting

We present the design and characterization of InP-based avalanche photodiodes optimized for single photon counting for wavelengths between 1.0 and 1.7 mum, and we discuss performance trade-offs and mechanisms responsible for present performance limits.