Rainer Greifeneder

Can there ever be too many options? A meta-analytic review of choice overload

The choice overload hypothesis states that an increase in the number of options to choose from may lead to adverse consequences such as a decrease in the motivation to choose or the satisfaction with the finally chosen option. A number of studies found strong instances of choice overload in the lab and in the field, but others found no such effects or found that more choices may instead facilitate choice and increase satisfaction. In a meta‐analysis of 63 conditions from 50 published and unpublished experiments (N = 5,036), we found a mean effect size of virtually zero but considerable variance between studies. While further analyses indicated several potentially important preconditions for choice overload, no sufficient conditions could be identified. However, some idiosyncratic moderators proposed in single studies may still explain when and why choice overload reliably occurs; we review these studies and identify possible directions for future research.

When Do People Rely on Affective and Cognitive Feelings in Judgment? A Review

Although people have been shown to rely on feelings to make judgments, the conditions that moderate this reliance have not been systematically reviewed and conceptually integrated. This article addresses this gap by jointly reviewing moderators of the reliance on both subtle affective feelings and cognitive feelings of ease-of-retrieval. The review revealed that moderators of the reliance on affective and cognitive feelings are remarkably similar and can be grouped into five major categories: (a) the salience of the feelings, (b) the representativeness of the feelings for the target, (c) the relevance of the feelings to the judgment, (d) the evaluative malleability of the judgment, and (e) the level of processing intensity. Based on the reviewed evidence, it is concluded that the use of feelings as information is a frequent event and a generally sensible judgmental strategy rather than a constant source of error. Avenues for future research are discussed.

Less may be more when choosing is difficult: Choice complexity and too much choice

Although consumers readily seek choice and abundance, the so-called too-much-choice effect suggests that having many alternatives to choose from eventually leads to negative consequences, such as decreased post-choice satisfaction. The present research extends this research by highlighting the role of choice complexity. It is argued that too-much-choice effects are associated with choice complexity, which is influenced not only by the number of alternatives, but also by other features of the choice set, such as the number of attributes that alternatives are differentiated upon. These other influences of choice complexity may propel or hinder the emergence of too-much-choice effects. Two experiments tested this hypothesis by orthogonally manipulating the number of alternatives and the number of attributes. Results revealed a too-much-choice effect when alternatives were differentiated on many attributes, but not when alternatives were differentiated on few attributes. Implications for theory and practice are discussed.

A Matter of Vertical Position Consequences of Ostracism Differ for Those Above Versus Below Its Perpetrators

Vertical position in space has been linked to perceptions of power, and high-power individuals have been shown to be less influenced by both the situational context and other people. Building on this literature, we hypothesized that a high spatial position as compared with a low one would reduce the threat from social exclusion and might help prevent aggressive acts of retaliation. To investigate this hypothesis, two arrangements of “Cyberball”—a classic manipulation of social exclusion—were compared: In the standard arrangement, participants are positioned below the excluding players; for the new arrangement, the standard arrangement was vertically flipped, so that participants were positioned above the excluding players, and thus “aloof” from the situation. Results show that only individuals positioned below (implying low power), but not individuals positioned above (implying high power), exhibited increased aggression when being ostracized. Threatened need for control and negative mood mediated the tendency toward aggressive behavior.

When It’s Okay That I Don’t Play Social Norms and the Situated Construal of Social Exclusion

Being excluded and ignored has been shown to threaten fundamental human needs and cause pain. Such reflexive reactions to social exclusion have been conceptualized as direct and unmoderated (temporal need threat model of ostracism). Here, we propose an extension and argue that reflexive reactions depend on how social exclusion situations are construed. If being excluded is understood as a violation of an inclusion norm, individuals will react with pain and threat. In contrast, if being excluded is consistent with the prevailing norm, the exclusion situation is interpreted as less threatening, and negative reflexive reactions to ostracism should be attenuated. Four studies empirically support this conceptual model. Studies 3 and 4 further show that to guide situated construal, the norm has to be endorsed by the individual. In both Studies 1 and 3, the effect of the norm is mediated by the objective situation’s subjective construal.

On Writing Legibly Processing Fluency Systematically Biases Evaluations of Handwritten Material

Evaluations of handwritten essays or exams are often suspected of being biased, such as by mood states or individual predilections. Although most of these influences are unsystematic, at least one bias is problematic because it systematically affects evaluations of handwritten materials. Three experiments revealed that essays in legible as compared to less legible handwriting were evaluated more positively. This robust finding was related to a basic judgmental mechanism that builds on the fluency with which handwriting can be processed. The present research further revealed that this evaluative bias is not inevitable but can be controlled for. Given the importance of evaluations based on handwritten work samples for individual success throughout school, college, university, and work life, it is important for individuals to be aware of this bias.

Lieber die Taube auf dem Dach

The current paper provides a German translation of the maximizing scale, originally presented by Schwartz et al. (2002). The maximizing scale assesses the individual tendency to strive for optimal versus satisfactory decisions. A translation of the regret scale is also provided, as this scale was initially introduced along with the maximizing scale. Two studies (N = 317, 219) investigated the factor structure, reliability and validity of the German translation of the maximizing scale. For the first time, it is shown that maximizers compared to satisficers strive more for optimal decisions and exhibit a more intensive search for alternatives.

Processing Fluency in Education: How Metacognitive Feelings Shape Learning, Belief Formation, and Affect

Processing fluency—the experienced ease with which a mental operation is performed—has attracted little attention in educational psychology, despite its relevance. The present article reviews and integrates empirical evidence on processing fluency that is relevant to school education. Fluency is important, for instance, in learning, self-assessment of knowledge, testing, grading, teacher–student communication, social interaction in the multicultural classroom, and emergence of interest. After a brief overview of basic fluency research we review effects of processing fluency in three broad areas: metacognition in learning, belief formation, and affect. Within each area, we provide evidence-based implications for education. Along the way, we offer fluency-based insights into phenomena that were long known but not yet sufficiently explained (e.g., the effect of handwriting on grading). Bringing fluency (back) to education may contribute to research and school practice alike.

The fate of activated information in impression formation: Fluency of concept activation moderates the emergence of assimilation versus contrast

Prior research has shown that activated concepts may influence subsequent interpretation and judgmental processes via priming. Building on this evidence, we suggest that the fluency associated with concept activation may determine whether activated content elicits assimilation or contrast. In two experiments, concept activation in a typical priming experiment was rendered fluent or non-fluent. Consistent with hypotheses, fluent concept activation led to assimilation, whereas non-fluent concept activation led to contrast.

Evaluation of the Offensive Approach in Information Security Education

There is a tendency in information security education at universities to not only teach protection measures but also attack techniques. Increasingly more universities offer hands-on labs, where students can experience both the attackers’ and the administrators’ view. Getting to know the attackers’ view is thought to lead to a better understanding of information security and its problems compared to teaching only strategies for defense.