Rami Subhi

Improved oxygen systems for childhood pneumonia: a multihospital effectiveness study in Papua New Guinea

BACKGROUND In rural hospitals of developing countries, oxygen supplies are poor and detection of hypoxaemia is difficult. Oxygen concentrators and pulse oximeters might help to manage the disease; however, use of such technology in developing countries needs comprehensive assessment. We studied the effect of an improved oxygen system on death rate in children with pneumonia in Papua New Guinea. METHODS We installed an improved oxygen system in five hospitals in Papua New Guinea, and assessed its use in more than 11 000 children with pneumonia (2001-07) and compared case-fatality rates. Admissions between January, 2001, and December, 2004, formed the pre-intervention group, and those between July, 2005, and October, 2007, formed the post-intervention group. Oxygen concentrators and pulse oximeters were introduced in the five hospitals, and a protocol for detection of hypoxaemia and clinical use of oxygen was supplied. All children admitted had their oxygen saturation measured; if it was less than 90%, oxygen was delivered via nasal prongs at a starting flow rate of 0.5-1 L/min. We recorded all costs associated with the establishment and maintenance of this system. The study was approved by the Medical Research Advisory Committee of Papua New Guinea, number MRAC 04.02. FINDINGS Before the use of this system, 356 of 7161 children admitted in the five hospitals for pneumonia died (case-fatality rate 4.97% [95% CI 4.5-5.5]), whereas 133 of 4130 children died in the 27 months after the introduction of the system (3.22% [2.7-3.8]). After the improved system was introduced, the risk of death for a child with pneumonia was 35% lower than was that before the project began (risk ratio 0.65 [0.52-0.78], p<0.0001). Mortality rates varied between hospitals. The estimated costs of this system were US

The prevalence of hypoxaemia among ill children in developing countries: a systematic review.

51 per patient treated, US

Community-acquired neonatal and infant sepsis in developing countries: efficacy of WHO's currently recommended antibiotics—systematic review and meta-analysis

1673 per life saved, and US

Pulse oximetry: technology to reduce child mortality in developing countries.

50 per disability-adjusted life-year (DALY) averted. INTERPRETATION Pulse oximetry and oxygen concentrators can alleviate oxygen shortages, reduce mortality, and improve quality of care for children with pneumonia in developing countries. The cost-effectiveness of this system compared favourably with that of other public-health interventions. FUNDING The Papua New Guinea National Department of Health; WHO, Papua New Guinea and Western Pacific Regional Office; AirSep corporation, Buffalo, NY, USA; the Ross Trust, VIC, Australia; AusAID; Jacques Gostelli, Switzerland; and a grant from the University of Melbourne.

Implementing an oxygen programme in hospitals in Papua New Guinea

Hypoxaemia is a common complication of childhood infections, particularly acute lower respiratory tract infections. In pneumonia-a disease that disproportionately impacts developing countries, and accounts for more than two million deaths of children worldwide-hypoxaemia is a recognised risk factor for death, and correlates with disease severity. Hypoxaemia also occurs in severe sepsis, meningitis, common neonatal problems, and other conditions that impair ventilation and gas exchange or increase oxygen demands. Despite this, hypoxaemia has been overlooked in worldwide strategies for pneumonia control and reducing child mortality. Hypoxaemia is also often overlooked in developing countries, mainly due to the low accuracy of clinical predictors and the limited availability of pulse oximetry for more accurate detection and oxygen for treatment. In this Review of published and unpublished studies of acute lower respiratory tract infection, the median prevalence of hypoxaemia in WHO-defined pneumonia requiring hospitalisation (severe and very severe classifications) was 13%, but prevalence varied widely. This corresponds to at least 1.5 to 2.7 million annual cases of hypoxaemic pneumonia presenting to health-care facilities. Many more people do not access health care. With mounting evidence of the impact that improved oxygen systems have on mortality due to acute respiratory infection in limited-resource health-care facilities, there is a need for increased awareness of the burden of hypoxaemia in childhood illness.

When should oxygen be given to children at high altitude? A systematic review to define altitude-specific hypoxaemia

Objective To review the aetiology and antibiotic resistance patterns of community-acquired sepsis in developing countries in infants where no clear focus of infection is clinically identified. To estimate the likely efficacy of WHOs recommended treatment for infant sepsis. Design A systematic review of the literature describing the aetiology of community-acquired neonatal and infant sepsis in developing countries. Using meta-analytical methods, susceptibility was determined to the antibiotic combinations recommended by WHO: (1) benzylpenicillin/ampicillin and gentamicin, (2) chloramphenicol and benzylpenicillin, and (3) third-generation cephalosporins. Results 19 studies were identified from 13 countries, with over 4000 blood culture isolates. Among neonates, Staphylococcus aureus, Klebsiella spp. and Escherichia coli accounted for 55% (39–70%) of culture positive sepsis on weighted prevalence. In infants outside the neonatal period, the most prevalent pathogens were S aureus, E coli, Klebsiella spp., Streptococcus pneumoniae and Salmonella spp., which accounted for 59% (26–92%) of culture positive sepsis. For neonates, penicillin/gentamicin had comparable in vitro coverage to third-generation cephalosporins (57% vs 56%). In older infants (1–12 months), in vitro susceptibility to penicillin/gentamicin, chloramphenicol/penicillin and third-generation cephalosporins was 63%, 47% and 64%, respectively. Conclusions The high rate of community-acquired resistant sepsis—especially that caused by Klebsiella spp. and S aureus—is a serious global public health concern. In vitro susceptibility data suggest that third-generation cephalosporins are not more effective in treating sepsis than the currently recommended antibiotics, benzylpenicillin and gentamicin; however, with either regimen a significant proportion of bacteraemia is not covered. Revised recommendations for effective second-line antibiotics in neonatal and infant sepsis in developing countries are urgently needed.

Global use of the WHO Pocket Book of Hospital Care for Children

Abstract The causes of hypoxaemia in children include the commonest causes of childhood illness: pneumonia and other acute respiratory infections, and neonatal illness, particularly sepsis, low birthweight, birth asphyxia and aspiration syndromes. The systematic use of pulse oximetry to monitor and treat children in resource-poor developing countries, when coupled with a reliable oxygen supply, improves quality of care and reduces mortality. Oximetry also has a well established role in surgery and anaesthesia, but in many countries children undergo surgery without the safety of oximetry monitoring. This article reviews pulse oximetry, its technical basis and its application to the medical management of childhood illness to reduce mortality in developing countries. We propose that, as a part of the work towards achieving the Millennium Development Goal 4, there should be a concerted global effort to make pulse oximetry and a reliable oxygen source available in all health facilities where seriously ill children are managed.

The Western Pacific Regional Child Survival Strategy: progress and challenges in implementation.

Abstract In Papua New Guinea (PNG), the most common cause of death among children under 5 years of age is pneumonia. Children with severe pneumonia need antibiotics and oxygen but oxygen shortages are common owing to the cost and complex logistics of transporting it in cylinders. Detection of hypoxaemia using clinical signs can be difficult, especially in highly pigmented children in whom cyanosis is difficult to recognise. Pulse oximetry is the most reliable, non-invasive way of detecting hypoxaemia. However, most hospitals in PNG do not have pulse oximetry. We proposed that the installation of a reliable, sufficient and cheap supply of oxygen in hospitals coupled with the use of pulse oximetry would make a significant difference to child survival rates in PNG. Oxygen concentrators, which extract oxygen from ambient air, were installed in the childrens wards of five hospitals during 2005. Pulse oximeters were also introduced to enable better detection of hypoxaemia. This paper describes the technical aspects of this programme: the equipment used and the rationale behind choosing it, the installation, commissioning and testing processes. The ongoing training of clinical and engineering staff as well as two follow-up evaluations are described.

Child health nurses in the Solomon Islands: lessons for the Pacific and other developing countries

Background: Acute respiratory infections (ARI) cause 3 million deaths in children worldwide each year. Most of these deaths occur from pneumonia in developing countries, and hypoxaemia is the most common fatal complication. Simple and adaptable indications for oxygen therapy are important in the management of ARI. The current WHO definition of hypoxaemia as any arterial oxygen saturation (SpO2) <90% does not take into account the variation in normal oxygen saturation with altitude. This study aimed to define normal oxygen saturation and to estimate the threshold of hypoxaemia for children permanently living at different altitudes. Methods: We carried out a systematic review of the literature addressing normal values of oxygen saturation in children aged 1 week to 12 years. Hypoxaemia was defined as any SpO2 at or below the 2.5th centile for a population of healthy children at a given altitude. Meta-regression analysis was performed to estimate the change in mean SpO2 and the hypoxaemia threshold with increasing altitude. Results: 14 studies were reviewed and analysed to produce prediction equations for estimating the expected mean SpO2 in normal children, and the threshold SpO2 indicating hypoxaemia at various altitudes. An SpO2 of 90% is the 2.5th centile for a population of healthy children living at an altitude of ∼2500 m above sea level. This decreases to 85% at an altitude of ∼3200 m. Conclusions: For health facilities at very high altitudes, giving oxygen to all children with an SpO2 <90% may be too liberal if oxygen supplies are limited. In such settings, Spo2 <85% may be more appropriate to identify children most in need of oxygen supplementation.

Papua New Guinea: real progress towards MDG 4 and real challenges

Abstract Background: Studies in the last decade have identified major deficiencies in the care of seriously ill children in hospitals in developing countries. Effective implementation of clinical guidelines is an important strategy for improving quality of care. In 2005 the World Health Organization produced the Pocket Book of Hospital Care for Children — Guidelines for Management of Common Childhood Illnesses in Rural and District Hospitals with Limited Resources. Objective: To determine the worldwide distribution, uptake and use of the WHO Pocket Book of Hospital Care for Children. Methods: A systematic online and postal survey was conducted to assess coverage and uptake of the Pocket Book in low- and middle-income countries (LMICs). More than 1000 key stakeholders with varied roles and responsibilities for child health in 194 countries were invited to participate. Indicators used to measure implementation of the guidelines included local adaptation, use as standard treatment and incorporation into undergraduate and postgraduate training. Results: Information was gathered from 354 respondents representing 134 countries; these included 98 LMICs and 50 countries with under-5 childhood mortality rates >40 deaths/1000 live births. Sixty-four LMICs (44% of 145 LMICs worldwide) including 42 high-mortality countries (66% of 64 high-mortality countries worldwide) reported at least partial implementation of the Pocket Book. However, uptake remains fragmented within countries. Conclusion: More than half of all LMICs with high rates of child mortality have reported use and substantial implementation activities, a considerable achievement given minimal resources available for implementation. Improving the accessibility of the Pocket Book and its implementation tools to health workers, and developing a strategic approach to implementation in each country could improve quality of hospital care for children and support efforts towards achieving the Millennium Development Goal 4 targets.