Raynner Rilke Duarte Barboza

Primates in traditional folk medicine: a world overview

Almost 50% of primates are in danger of becoming extinct, according to the criteria of the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species, one of the reasons being their consumption by humans. The reasons for hunting vary by region. One of these pretexts is the medicinal or magical value of products derived from these animals. This chapter aims at providing an overview of the global use of primates in traditional folk medicines, as well as identifying the species used as remedies associated to folk beliefs. Some important questions relating to their conservation will be addressed. Our results revealed that at least 110 species of primates, belonging to 41 genera and 11 families, are used in traditional folk practices and in magic-religious rituals throughout the world. Of the 110 species of primates recorded in our review, 22 species are classified as Vulnerable, 23 as Endangered, 14 as critically endangered, 7 as Near Threatened, 43 as Least Concern, and 1 classified as data deficient in the most recent IUCN Red List. All species are included in the CITES Appendices I or II also, although the reasons for their inclusion are not necessarily related to medicinal use. The widespread utilization of primates in traditional medicine is evidence of the importance of understanding such uses in the context of primate conservation, as well as the need for considering socio-cultural factors when establishing management plans concerning the sustainable use of these mammals. R. R. N. Alves (&) Departamento de Biologia, Universidade Estadual da Paraíba, Avenida das Baraúnas, Campina Grande-PB, 58109-753, Brazil e-mail: romulo_nobrega@yahoo.com.br W. M. S. Souto R. R. D. Barboza D. M. M. Bezerra Programa de Pós-Graduação em Ciências Biológicas, Universidade Federal da Paraíba, Campus 1, Cidade Universitária, João Pessoa-PB, 58059-900, Brazil R. R. N. Alves and I. L. Rosa (eds.), Animals in Traditional Folk Medicine, DOI: 10.1007/978-3-642-29026-8_8, Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 2013 135 8.

Animal-Based Remedies as Complementary Medicines in the Semi-Arid Region of Northeastern Brazil

Animals (and their derived products) are essential ingredients in the preparation of many traditional remedies. Despite its prevalence in traditional medical practices worldwide, research on medicinal animals has often been neglected in comparison to medicinal plant research. This work documents the medicinal animals used by a rural community in the semi-arid region, inserted in Caatinga Biome, where 66 respondents provided information on animal species used as medicine, body parts used to prepare the remedies and illnesses to which the remedies were prescribed. We calculated the informant consensus factor to determine the consensus over which species are effective for particular ailments, as well as the species use value to determine the extent of utilization of each species. We recorded the use of 51 animal species as medicines, whose products were recommended for the treatment of 68 illnesses. The informant consensus in the use of many specific remedies is fairly high, giving an additional validity to this folk medicine. Eight species not previously reported as having medicinal use were recorded. The local medicinal fauna is largely based on wild animals, including some endangered species. Given a high proportion of medicinal animals observed in the study area, it is logical to conclude that any conservation strategy should include access to modern health care.

Parallels between zootherapeutic practices in ethnoveterinary and human complementary medicine in northeastern Brazil

AIM OF THE STUDY The purpose of this study was to describe the local zootherapeutic practices in ethnoveterinay medicine of semi-arid of NE Brazil (Caatinga biome) and to contribute to future research about the validation of the effects and side effects of these animal products. In this sense, we sought to determine the connections between human and animal ethnopharmacology and their implications for ethnoveterinary medicine in northeastern Brazil. MATERIALS AND METHODS In this study we analyze data gathered through fieldwork conducted in the semi-arid of Paraiba State, NE Brazil, where 123 people (98 men and 25 women) provided information on animal species used as medicine, body parts used to prepare the remedies and illnesses to which the remedies were prescribed. The information obtained through semi-structured interviews was complemented by free interviews and informal conversations. RESULTS A total of 46 animal species (43 vertebrates and 3 invertebrates) were found to be used to treat 33 different ailments in livestocks and pets and 62 conditions in humans. Interviewees cited a wide range of materials derived from animal bodies (or their metabolic products) that are used as remedies in local EVM, nonetheless, fats (and/or suet) is the most frequently reported natural remedies. EVM practices have close relationships with human complementary and alternative medicine (CAM) and probably evolved based on traditional human medicine practices; as such, the division between EVM and CAM is not always obvious from the viewpoint of the local residents. Descriptions of diseases, symptoms or treatments were often associated with both humans and animals (especially livestock), and 24 animal species (52%) were prescribed to treat similar ailments in both humans and animals based on local knowledge about CAM. CONCLUSIONS Our results suggest that traditional knowledge of animal-based medicines in ethnoveterinary practices co-evolved with traditional knowledge of human ethnomedicine. The examination of folk knowledge and animal health practices will give us a better understanding of human interactions with their local environment and aid in formulating appropriate strategies for the validation of traditional remedies and for natural resource conservation.

The influence of religiosity on health

The relationship between religion and health has been a subject of interest in the past and in the latest years becoming increasingly visible in the social, behavioral, and health sciences. Among several approaches to be considered, the present work provides a briefly discuss concerning the bond between health and religiosity in the cure process and diseases treatment. Several investigations show that religious participation is related with better outcomes for persons who are recovering from physical and mental illness, also the psychology science have committed special issues to positive correlations between religious belief and practice, mental and physical health and longevity. On the other hand, religion may also be associated with negative outcomes and the inappropriate use of health services as fanaticism, asceticism, mortifications and oppressive traditionalism. The potential for both positive and negative effects of spirituality on health, combined with the high levels of engagement with spirituality suggests that this area is ripe for future sustained research. Independent of the possible mechanisms, if individuals receive health profits by the religion; those should be motivated, respecting the individual faith of each one.

A Global overview of canids used in traditional medicines

Canids are among the mammal species most frequently used in traditional folk medicine around the world. In this context, this paper assesses the global use of canids in traditional folk medicine and their implications. Our review indicated that 19 species of canid are used in traditional medicine worldwide, representing 54.2% of described canid species. Of the species in medicinal use, two are listed as Endangered and three as near threatened on the IUCN Red List. For some species medicinal use represents an additional direct pressure that may have contributed to declines of natural populations. In addition, use of medicinal animals may have indirect impacts on the conservation of other species through the spread of disease. To minimize both harvest impacts and disease spread, guidance on use of medicinal species may be useful. This could include an exploration of the use of alternatives and implementation of sanitary measures.

The role of game mammals as bushmeat In the Caatinga, northeast Brazil

Although the use of wild mammals as a source of food has been better studied in tropical forest environments, their importance as a source of protein for human communities in semiarid environments is little known. In the latter, the availability of wild animal meat is limited in comparison to other environments. In the semiarid regions of northeastern Brazil, hunting wild mammals for their meat is traditional, playing a crucial role in the livelihoods and food security of various rural and urban communities, especially during the annual drought seasons. In this study, we investigated the role of wild mammals as bushmeat in 10 communities within the Caatinga biome in northeast Brazil. We used key-informant interviews, household surveys, and questionnaires to determine the species hunted and consumed. We found that about 30 species were used for bushmeat, with communities clustering into two main groups. We showed that in almost all municipalities visited, all mammals hunted were reported after interview days. A total of 46.9% of hunters consumed bushmeat at least once a week. However, preference for bushmeat over livestock was perceived to be more a matter of taste (61.50% of respondents) than a real need for protein supplementation from the wild. The ease of entering environmental areas where wild mammals can be found has disadvantages for wildlife in terms of pressure and overexploitation, especially where it concerns endangered species. The key to understanding the socioeconomic, cultural, and ecological contexts in which there are traditional uses is to develop conservationist strategies suitable for the socioeconomic reality of human populations.

Medicinal Animals as Therapeutic Alternative in a Semi-Arid Region of Northeastern Brazil

Background: A number of animal species are offered by herbalists in markets throughout Brazil. Nevertheless, there is a general lack of information about this type of trade in the country. In this review, we report on the trade of medicinal animal species in a semi-arid region in northeastern Brazil. Methods: We gathered information from scientific articles on animal species used for medicinal purposes in that semi-arid region. Results and Conclusion: The trade of medicinal animals comprises 59 species and the zootherapeutic products extracted from them, recommended for the treatment of 66 illnesses. Results demonstrate the existence of a multi-state trade network of medicinal animals. Some of the traded animals are listed in the Brazilian list of threatened species. This demonstrates the urgent need to consider zootherapy in the context of biodiversity conservation in Brazil. Our results reveal the importance of zootherapy as a therapeutic alternative and demonstrate the need of further studies on the subject.

Aquatic Mammals Used in Traditional Folk Medicine: A Global Analysis

Aquatic mammals are medium- to large-sized animals, which have been the source of large amounts of subproducts—among which medicines—to humans since ancient times. They are also among the most threatened animal taxa worldwide. This chapter provides an overview of the global use of aquatic mammals in traditional folk medicine and the implications for conservation, with emphasis on species of the orders Cetacea, Sirenia, and Carnivora. At least 24 species of aquatic mammals are used in traditional medicine worldwide, although all these species are listed in the IUCN Red List, including one species categorized as Critically Endangered, three as Endangered, eight as Vulnerable. The medicinal use probably does not pose a major threat to most aquatic mammals; however, their exploitation for medicinal purposes is troubling, as it constitutes an additional and persistent impact for a group of animals that has suffered major direct impacts, especially hunting (for food and fur) and habitat loss, as well as impacts related to global warming.

The Role of Nonhuman Primates in Religious and Folk Medicine Beliefs

Primates play an important role in many types of stories, fables, folk tales, myths, proverbs, legends, and religious and folk medicine beliefs. The inclusion of nonhuman primates in various cultural practices influences human interactions and attitudes toward those nonhuman primate species, with obvious implications for their conservation. This chapter provides a brief review on the main forms of interactions between people and primates in religious and folk medicine contexts and their conservationist implications.

The Role of Animals in Human Culture

Abstract Animals have played a significant role in the lives of humans, not only because they are practically useful but also because they are sources of inspiration in different cultural activities, such as belief systems, art, literature, etc. Worldwide, cultural attributes of animals vary across cultures and over time, and reflect a set of cultural practices that are associated with fauna and that influence how animals are viewed, used, and treated by humans. Understanding the cultural role of animals is essential to understanding the relationships people have with them, thus making it an important ethnozoological subject of investigation. In this chapter we discuss the significance of animals in the main human cultural manifestations, which have perpetuated from the most primitive to the most contemporary societies.