Rebecca Gowland

Morbidity in the marshes: using spatial epidemiology to investigate skeletal evidence for Malaria in Anglo-Saxon England (AD 410-1050).

Concerns over climate change and its potential impact on infectious disease prevalence have contributed to a resurging interest in malaria in the past. A wealth of historical evidence indicates that malaria, specifically Plasmodium vivax, was endemic in the wetlands of England from the 16th century onwards. While it is thought that malaria was introduced to Britain during the Roman occupation (AD first to fifth centuries), the lack of written mortality records prior to the post-medieval period makes it difficult to evaluate either the presence or impact of the disease. The analysis of human skeletal remains from archaeological contexts is the only potential means of examining P. vivax in the past. Malaria does not result in unequivocal pathological lesions in the human skeleton; however, it results in hemolytic anemia, which can contribute to the skeletal condition cribra orbitalia. Using geographical information systems (GIS), we conducted a spatial analysis of the prevalence of cribra orbitalia from 46 sites (5,802 individuals) in relation to geographical variables, historically recorded distribution patterns of indigenous malaria and the habitat of its mosquito vector Anopheles atroparvus. Overall, those individuals living in low-lying and Fenland regions exhibited higher levels of cribra orbitalia than those in nonmarshy locales. No corresponding relationship existed with enamel hypoplasia. We conclude that P. vivax malaria, in conjunction with other comorbidities, is likely to be responsible for the pattern observed. Studies of climate and infectious disease in the past are important for modeling future health in relation to climate change predictions.

Detecting plague: palaeodemographic characterisation of a catastrophic death assemblage

The archaeological definition of a plague should be possible from skeletal populations, because the age profile of a population afflicted by a catastrophe will be different to that of a community exposed to a more normal mortality. The authors show how this can be done using a Bayesian statistical analysis.

Childhood Health in the Roman World: Perspectives from the Centre and Margin of the Empire

Abstract Very few studies to date have presented contextualised interpretations of bioarchaeological evidence from Roman urban environments. This paper compares and contrasts the osteological data for childhood health from two urban centres, one at the centre and the other at the margins of the Roman Empire – Rome and London. We synthesise recently published and newly recorded data on childhood indicators of physiological stress (e.g. cribra orbitalia and enamel hypoplasias) from both sites. Contrary to expectations, we find that the prevalence of these stress indicators is comparable between sites. In order to contextualise these findings we compare the results to published data from other sites of the same period (from both rural and urban locales) within the respective countries. We find that the data from London is anomalous for Roman Britain, while that from Rome is similar to findings from contemporaneous Italian sites. We interpret these findings in terms of child-rearing practices, the local living environment and high levels of migration into Roman London from Mediterranean regions.

Infant and Child Burial Rites in Roman Britain: a Study from East Yorkshire

The discovery of infant burials on excavated domestic sites in Roman Britain is fairly common but in the past these burials have often been dismissed as a product of unceremonious disposal. There is a growing literature which considers the phenomenon, but it has been dominated by debates around the suggestion that these burials provide evidence for infanticide, with a focus on the osteological evidence for and against this hypothesis. There has been less systematic consideration of the archaeological context of such burials. In this paper we examine the excavated evidence of two large groups of such burials from sites in East Yorkshire which demonstrate that the burial of neonatal infants followed a careful age-specific funerary rite. We suggest that this conclusion further undermines the widespread assumption that infants were disposed of without ceremony and as a result of infanticide.

The use of non-adult vertebral dimensions as indicators of growth disruption and non-specific health stress in skeletal populations

ABSTRACT Objective Traditional methods of detecting growth disruption have focused on deficiencies in the diaphyseal length of the long bones. This study proposes the implementation of vertebral measurements (body height and transverse diameter of the neural canal) from non‐adults (0–17 years) as a new methodology for the identification of growth disruption. Methods Measurements of vertebral body height and transverse diameter were taken from 96 non‐adult skeletons and 40 adult skeletons from two post‐medieval sites in England (Bow Baptist, London and Coronation Street, South Shields). Non‐adult measurements were plotted against dental age to construct vertebral growth profiles through which inter‐population comparisons could be made. Results Results demonstrated that both sites experienced some growth retardation in infancy, evident as deficiencies in transverse diameter. However, analysis of vertebral body height revealed different chronologies of growth disruption between the sites, with a later age of attainment of skeletal maturity recorded in the Bow Baptist sample. Discussion These vertebral dimensions undergo cessation of growth at different ages, with transverse diameter being “locked‐in” by ∼1–2 years of age, while vertebral body height may continue to grow into early adulthood. These measurements can therefore provide complementary information regarding the timing of growth disruption within archaeological populations. Non‐adult vertebral measurements can increase our osteobiographical understanding of the timings of episodes of health stress, and allow for the analysis of growth when other skeletal elements are fragmentary. Am J Phys Anthropol 158:155–164, 2015.

Dedicated Followers of Fashion? Bioarchaeological Perspectives on Socio-Economic Status, Inequality, and Health in Urban Children from the Industrial Revolution (18th–19th C), England

Abstract The 18th and 19th centuries in England were characterised by a period of increasing industrialisation of its urban centres. It was also one of widening social and health inequalities between the rich and the poor. Childhood is well‐documented as being a stage in the life course during which the body is particularly sensitive to adverse socio‐economic environments. This study therefore aims to examine the relationship between health and wealth through a comprehensive skeletal analysis of a sample of 403 children (0–17 years), of varying socio‐economic status, from four cemetery sites in London (c.1712–1854). Measurements of long bone diaphyseal length, cortical thickness, vertebral neural canal size, and the prevalence of a range of pathological indicators of health stress were recorded from the Chelsea Old Church (high status), St Benet Sherehog (middle status), Bow Baptist (middle status), and Cross Bones (low status) skeletal collections. Children from the low status Cross Bones site demonstrated deficient growth values, as expected. However, those from the high status site of Chelsea Old Church also demonstrated poor growth values during infancy. Fashionable child‐care practices (e.g. the use of artificial infant feeds and keeping children indoors) may have contributed to poor infant health amongst high status groups. However, differing health risks in the lower status group revealed the existence of substantial health inequality in London at this time.

Child Bioarchaeology: Perspectives on the Past 10 Years

ABSTRACT This article aims to provide an overview of some of the more important developments in the bioarchaeology of childhood over the past decade. Analysis of publication trends in the major osteoarchaeology and physical anthropology journals demonstrated a rise in research papers dealing with skeletal remains of children, with dietary and palaeopathological studies especially predominant. Innovations in these areas are discussed in more detail, together with some important developments in theoretical frameworks for using skeletal evidence to situate children in past societies. Among these latter is the life course approach, in which childhood is considered within the context of the trajectory of the entire life course. The integration of studies of child skeletal remains with those of adults helps to provide a more complete picture of communities in the past.

Poor preservation of antibodies in archaeological human bone and dentine

Abstract The growth of proteomics-based methods in archaeology prompted an investigation of the survival of non-collagenous proteins, specifically immunoglobulin G (IgG), in archaeological human bone and dentine. Over a decade ago reports were published on extracted, immunoreactive archaeological IgG, and the variable yields of IgG molecules detected by Western blots of 1D and 2D SDS-PAGE gels. If IgG can indeed be recovered from archaeological skeletal material, it offers remarkable opportunities for exploring the history of disease - for example in applying functional anti-malarial IgGs to study past patterns of malaria. More recently, the field has seen a move away from immunological approaches and towards the use of shotgun proteomics via mass spectrometry. Using previously published techniques, this study attempted to extract and characterize archaeological IgG proteins. In only one extraction method were immunoglobulin derived peptides identified, and these displayed extensive evidence of degradation. The failure to extract immunoglobulins by all but one method, along with observed patterns of protein degradation, suggests that IgG may be an unsuitable target for detecting disease-associated antigens. This research highlights the importance of revisiting previously ‘successful’ biomolecular methodologies using emerging technologies.

Sex determination of human remains from peptides in tooth enamel

Significance The ability to assign biological sex to human skeletal remains is a fundamental requirement in archaeology, paleoanthropology, and medico-legal sciences. While DNA sequencing can be used, it is expensive, time-consuming, and often fails due to the poor quality of the remaining DNA. An easier, more reliable, and consistently applicable method is needed. We present a method for sex determination of human remains using peptides retrieved from tooth enamel. Amelogenin is an enamel-forming protein encoded for by both chromosomes X and Y, with slight differences in their amino acid sequences. Peptides with these differences were identified by nanoflow liquid chromatography mass spectrometry and found to correctly assign sex to archaeological human remains of various chronological ages, from hundreds to thousands of years old. The assignment of biological sex to archaeological human skeletons is a fundamental requirement for the reconstruction of the human past. It is conventionally and routinely performed on adults using metric analysis and morphological traits arising from postpubertal sexual dimorphism. A maximum accuracy of ∼95% is possible if both the cranium and os coxae are present and intact, but this is seldom achievable for all skeletons. Furthermore, for infants and juveniles, there are no reliable morphological methods for sex determination without resorting to DNA analysis, which requires good DNA survival and is time-consuming. Consequently, sex determination of juvenile remains is rarely undertaken, and a dependable and expedient method that can correctly assign biological sex to human remains of any age is highly desirable. Here we present a method for sex determination of human remains by means of a minimally destructive surface acid etching of tooth enamel and subsequent identification of sex chromosome-linked isoforms of amelogenin, an enamel-forming protein, by nanoflow liquid chromatography mass spectrometry. Tooth enamel is the hardest tissue in the human body and survives burial exceptionally well, even when the rest of the skeleton or DNA in the organic fraction has decayed. Our method can reliably determine the biological sex of humans of any age using a body tissue that is difficult to cross-contaminate and is most likely to survive. The application of this method will make sex determination of adults and, for the first time, juveniles a reliable and routine activity in future bioarcheological and medico-legal science contexts.

The Children of the Reformation: Childhood Palaeoepidemiology in Britain, ad 1000–1700

Abstract CHILDHOOD IS A TIME of rapid biological growth and development, and a stage of the life course during which bodies are particularly sensitive to social and environmental stressors. As a consequence, events which may impact upon a child’s care and treatment can become physically embodied within their bones and teeth. The skeletal remains of children have been neglected within archaeological discourse until recently, but they are, in fact, a particularly important demographic for understanding the impact of social processes on past population health. This research examines the prevalence of skeletal disease in children (≤16 years) in Britain (England, Wales and Scotland) between ad 1000 and 1700. Data for a total of 4,626 children from 95 sites were collated from published and unpublished skeletal reports and analysed for evidence of skeletal changes reflecting disease. A biocultural approach was adopted in which the evidence was interpreted in relation to ecological, social, economic and environmental conditions. It was observed that childhood levels of skeletal stress did increase significantly after 1540. It was noted that during the Reformation sociocultural and economic factors added to stressors in the ecology of the medieval child. The effects of the Reformation were found to be the greatest aggravator in the rise of morbidity prevalence over seven centuries. Differences in morbidity patterns between non-adult age categories indicated that a state of ‘childhood’ existed until at least eleven years of age, after which there appears to have been a gradual transition into adolescence and adulthood. Résumé L’enfance est une période de croissance biologique et de développement accélérés et une étape de la vie à laquelle les organismes sont particulièrement sensibles aux facteurs de stress social et environnemental. Par conséquent, les événements qui ont un impact sur les soins et le traitement d’un enfant peuvent s’incarner physiquement dans son squelette et sa dentition. Jusqu’à récemment, les squelettes d’enfant étaient négligés par le discours archéologique, alors qu’ils sont en réalité un indice démographique particulièrement important pour comprendre l’impact des processus sociaux sur la santé des populations antérieures. Cette étude examine la prévalence des maladies osseuses chez les enfants (≤16 ans) en Grande-Bretagne (Angleterre, pays de Galles et Écosse), entre 1000 et 1700. Les données de 4626 enfants provenant de 95 sites, rassemblées à partir de rapports osseux publiés ou non, ont été analysées pour déceler des indices de transformations osseuses indicatrices de pathologies. Une approche bioculturelle a été adoptée dans laquelle les indices ont été interprétés par rapport aux conditions écologiques, sociales, économiques et environnementales. On a observé que les niveaux de stress osseux chez les enfants augmentent significativement à partir de 1540. On a noté que, pendant la Réforme, des facteurs socioculturels et économiques sont venus s’ajouter aux facteurs de stress dans l’écologie de l’enfant médiéval. Les effets de la Réforme sont apparus comme le principal facteur aggravant dans la prévalence croissante de la morbidité sur une période de 700 ans. Les différences de morbidité entre les catégories d’âge non-adulte laissent entrevoir une phase “d’enfance” jusqu’à 11 ans au moins, l’âge à partir duquel une transition graduelle vers l’adolescence et l’âge adulte semble se produire. Zusammenfassung Die Kindheit ist eine Zeit von raschen biologischen Wachstums und schneller Entwicklung und ein Lebensstadium, in dem der Körper besonders empfindlich auf die Stressfaktoren aus Gesellschaft und Umwelt reagiert. Folglich können Ereignisse, die sich auf die Fürsorge für Kinder und ihre Behandlung auswirken, sich körperlich in deren Knochen und Zähnen niederschlagen. Die Skelettüberreste von Kindern wurden bis vor kurzem im archäologischen Diskurs eher vernachlässigt: Aber tatsächlich sind Kinder eine besonders wichtige Bevölkerungsgruppe, wenn man die Auswirkungen gesellschaftlicher Prozesse auf die Gesundheit vergangener Populationen verstehen will. Die vorliegende Forschungsarbeit untersucht die Häufigkeit von Skeletterkrankungen bei Kindern (≤16 Jahre) in Großbritannien (England, Wales und Schottland) zwischen ad 1000 und 1700. Aus veröffentlichten und unveröffentlichten Berichten über Skelettuntersuchungen wurden Daten für insgesamt 4626 Kinder von 95 Fundstätten zusammengeführt und auf Belege für krankheitsbedingte Skelettveränderungen untersucht. Es wurde ein biokultureller Ansatz verwendet, in dem das Beweismaterial mit Bezug auf ökologische, soziale, ökonomische und Umweltbedingungen interpretiert wurden. Es wurde beobachtet, dass nach 1540 die Auswirkungen von Stress auf das Skelett von Kindern signifikant zunahm. Es wurde angemerkt, dass während der Reformation soziokulturelle und wirtschaftliche Faktoren in der Ökologie des mittelalterlichen Kindes noch zusätzliche Stressfaktoren hinzufügten. Es wurde festgestellt, dass die Auswirkungen der Reformation sieben Jahrhunderte lang die größte Verschlimmerung in der Häufigkeit von Erkrankungen erzeugten. Unterschiede in Erkrankungsmustern zwischen verschiedenen nicht erwachsenen Altersgruppen deuten darauf hin, dass ein Zustand der “Kindheit” bis mindestens zum Alter von elf Jahren existierte und dass es danach einen allmählichen Übergang in die Jugend und ins Erwachsensein gegeben hat. Riassunto L’infanzia è un periodo di rapida crescita e sviluppo biologico, ed è uno stadio nel corso della vita durante il quale il corpo è particolarmente sensibile agli agenti stressanti sociali e ambientali. Per questo motivo gli eventi che hanno avuto un impatto nella cura e nel trattamento dei bambini possono restare fisicamente impressi nelle ossa e nei denti. Nelle dissertazioni archeologiche i resti ossei dei bambini sono stati trascurati fino a non molto tempo fa, mentre, di fatto, sono un elemento demografico particolarmente importante per capire l’impatto dei processi sociali sulla salute delle popolazioni passate. Questa ricerca esamina la prevalenza di malattie dello scheletro in bambini (≤16 anni) in Gran Bretagna (Inghilterra, Galles e Scozia) tra il 1000 e il 1700 dC. I dati per il totale di 4626 bambini di 95 siti diversi, ricavati da relazioni sugli scheletri pubblicate e non pubblicate, sono stati collazionati e analizzati per verificare i mutamenti dello scheletro che riflettessero malattie. Si è adottato un approccio bioculturale secondo il quale l’evidenza è stata interpretata in rapporto alle condizioni ecologiche, sociali, economiche e ambientali. Si è osservato che i livelli di stress dello scheletro aumentarono in modo rilevante dopo il 1540. Si è notato che durante la Riforma fattori socioculturali ed economici si aggiunsero agli agenti stressanti nell’ecologia dei bambini medievali. Si è scoperto che gli effetti della Riforma sono stati il maggiore fattore aggravante nell’aumento della prevalenza della morbidità sull’arco di sette secoli. Le differenze nell’andamento della morbidità tra le categorie di individui non adulti indicavano che uno stato di ‘infanzia’ permaneva almeno fino agli undici anni di età, dopo la quale sembra esserci stata una transizione graduale verso l’adolescenza e l’età adulta.