Rebecca L. Oxford

Language learning strategies :what every teacher should know

1. Looking at Language Learning Strategies 2. Direct Strategies for Dealing with Language 3. Applying Direct Strategies to the Four Language Skills 4. Indirect Strategies for General Management of Learning 5. Applying Indirect Strategies to the Four Language Skills 6. Language Learning Strategy Assessment and Training 7. Networking at Home and Abroad

A Closer Look at Learning Strategies, L2 Proficiency, and Gender

This study builds on previous research using the Strategy Inventory for Language Learning (SILL). Most previous SILL research has made comparisons across the entire survey or in terms of strategy categories and has stressed proficiency level at the expense of other variables. The present largescale (N = 374) study of language learning strategy use by students at three different course levels at the University of Puerto Rico relates strategy use to gender as well as to L2 proficiency level and includes analysis of variation in the use of individual strategies on the SILL. Like previous researchers, we found greater use of learning strategies among more successful learners and higher levels of strategy use by women than by men. Our analysis, however, revealed more complex patterns of use than have appeared in previous studies. With both proficiency level and gender, only some items showed significant variation, and significant variation by proficiency level did not invariably mean more frequent strategy use by more successful students. The strategies reported as used more often by the more successful students emphasized active, naturalistic practice and were used in combination with a variety of what we term bedrock strategies, which were used frequently or moderately frequently by learners at all levels. The studys generalizability and its implications for teachers and researchers are discussed.

Assessing the use of language learning strategies worldwide with the ESL/EFL version of the Strategy Inventory for Language Learning (SILL)

Abstract With factor analysis contributions by Neil Anderson, Ohio University, USA; Deena Boraie, American University in Cairo, Egypt; John Green, University of Puerto Rico at Mayaguez and Salem State College, USA; Gene Halleck, Oklahoma State University, USA; Omneya Kassabgy, Career Development Center, Cairo, Egypt; Victoria Talbott, Skagit Valley Junior College, USA; Yoshinori Watanabe, Japan; Nae-Dong Yang, National Taiwan University, Taiwan, ROC; Wenpeng Zhang, Ohio University, USA Summative rating scales are among the most efficient and comprehensive ways to assess frequency of language learning strategy use. This article discusses applications of this assessment technique and describes the most widely employed strategy scale, the ESL/EFL version of the Strategy Inventory for Language Learning (SILL). Reliability of the SILL is high across many cultural groups. Validity of the SILL rests on its predictive and correlative link with language performance (course grades, standardized test scores, ratings of proficiency), as well as its confirmed relationship to sensory preferences. Studies of strategy use frequencies and factor analytic results across cultures are included.

A Brief Overview of Individual Differences in Second Language Learning.

Abstract This special issue addresses the subject of individual differences in language learning, a topic whose complexity has meant little conclusive knowledge and thus need for continuing investigation. This paper offers a brief but broad overview of the field of individual differences in language learning, especially as they are reflected in learning styles, learning strategies, and affective variables, and touches on some areas for further research.

Use of Language Learning Strategies: A Synthesis of Studies with Implications for Strategy Training.

Abstract This article addresses two questions: What strategies do good language learners use? What factors affect choice of language learning strategies? To answer these questions, the author reviews and synthesizes existing research on language learning strategies, including a number of new and unpublished studies.

Comparing Theories of Language Learning Strategies: A Confirmatory Factor Analysis.

This study compared classification theories of language learning strategies. Results from confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) of the data measured by the ESL/EFL version of the Strategy Inventory for Language Learning and collected from 517 college EFL learners indicated that of the strategy theories examined, Oxfords 6–factor strategy taxonomy is the most consistent with learners’ strategy use, although this model did not produce a fully adequate fit to the data. The findings suggest that other possible approaches to strategy classification should be considered. These approaches include (a) differentiating strategies for using a language (“language use strategies”) from strategies for learning it (“language learning strategies”), (b) recognizing the importance of the learning environment, (c) slightly modifying the prevalent strategy classification theories by reclassifying particular strategies, (d) ensuring that the language skills are obvious in each strategy item, and (e) creating a task–based strategy inventory. This study also illustrates how CFA can be applied to the comparison of current strategy theories.

Adults' language learning strategies in an intensive foreign language program in the United States

Abstract Exploring a sample of adult language learners, this article shows the relationships between language learning strategies on the one hand and factors such as proficiency, teacher perceptions, gender, aptitude, learning style, personality type, ego boundaries, motivation, and anxiety on the other. This is an almost “optimal” group of language learners. Because of the sophisticated nature of this group of learners, statistical restrictions of range lowered the correlations, which are nevertheless significant and which point to implications for both instruction and further research.

Second Language Research on Individual Differences.

To provide the most effective instruction possible, teachers of a second language (L2) should learn to identify and comprehend significant individual differences in their students. Many excellent teachers have learned to do some of this intuitively, but explicit understanding of individual-difference dimensions can enhance the work of all teachers. Among the most important such variations are differences associated with nine factors: aptitude, motivation, anxiety, selfesteem, tolerance of ambiguity, risk-taking, language learning styles, age, and gender. All of these variables and many more have been shown to be related to L2 learning in various ways. In fact, Gradman and Hanania (1991) identify 22 individual-difference variables that can affect success in learning a new language.

Second language vocabulary learning among adults: State of the art in vocabulary instruction

Abstract This article describes research on second language vocabulary instruction, with a focus on what motivates students, what they need, why knowing a word is a complex act, and which factors influence vocabulary acquisition (such as maturational constraints, frequency, attention, previous language background, and order of acquisition). In addition, the article outlines a research-based approach to vocabulary teaching based on four elements: analysis of needs, personalization, learning strategies, and variety.

Clashing metaphors about classroom teachers: toward a systematic typology for the language teaching field

Abstract This article explores the uses of metaphor to express various perspectives about the concept of “teacher”. The metaphors came from student-written and teacher-composed narratives, interviews, articles and texts by education theorists and methodologists. A variety of metaphors emerged to describe teachers, especially language teachers, such as Teacher as Conduit, Teacher as Nurturer and Teacher as Competitor. This article exhibits different, often contradictory metaphors held about teachers, organizes them according to four major philosophical viewpoints, and shows how language teaching methods relate to these metaphors. Identifying and fully understanding these contrasting views can heighten “perspective-consciousness”, increase tolerance and understanding, and make the language classroom a more welcoming environment for students and teachers alike. Metaphor is the omnipresent principle of language. We cannot get through three sentences of ordinary discourse without it. ( Richards, 1936 )