Rene Ziegler

Stereotype content model across cultures: Towards universal similarities and some differences

The stereotype content model (SCM) proposes potentially universal principles of societal stereotypes and their relation to social structure. Here, the SCM reveals theoretically grounded, cross-cultural, cross-groups similarities and one difference across 10 non-US nations. Seven European (individualist) and three East Asian (collectivist) nations (N=1,028) support three hypothesized cross-cultural similarities: (a) perceived warmth and competence reliably differentiate societal group stereotypes; (b) many out-groups receive ambivalent stereotypes (high on one dimension; low on the other); and (c) high status groups stereotypically are competent, whereas competitive groups stereotypically lack warmth. Data uncover one consequential cross-cultural difference: (d) the more collectivist cultures do not locate reference groups (in-groups and societal prototype groups) in the most positive cluster (high-competence/high-warmth), unlike individualist cultures. This demonstrates out-group derogation without obvious reference-group favouritism. The SCM can serve as a pancultural tool for predicting group stereotypes from structural relations with other groups in society, and comparing across societies.

Multiple Source Characteristics and Persuasion: Source Inconsistency as a Determinant of Message Scrutiny

It is argued that previous persuasion research has been concerned predominantly with the role of single source characteristics (e.g., expertise) for attitude change and thus has failed to consider the role of multiple source characteristics. This was done in two experiments that tested the hypothesis that recipients would scrutinize a message more effortfully when the combination of two source characteristics is unexpected (source inconsistency) than when the combination is less surprising (source consistency). In Experiment 1, source likability, source expertise, and argument quality were manipulated. In Experiment 2, honesty instead of likability was manipulated. Results from both experiments provide evidence supporting the predicted effects of source (in)consistency on message scrutiny; that is, argument quality affected attitudes and favorability of message-related thoughts in the case of inconsistent source characteristics but not in the case of consistent source characteristics.

Source Consistency, Distinctiveness, and Consensus: The Three Dimensions of the Kelley ANOVA Model in Persuasion

Based on a conceptual analysis and existing research, the authors propose that the three source dimensions specified in the ANOVA model play similar roles in persuasion as other source characteristics (e.g., expertise). Two studies test assumptions derived from this approach regarding the effects of different combinations of consistency and consensus (Study 1) and distinctiveness and consensus (Study 2). Combinations resulting in contradictory (vs. similar) inferences regarding message validity should affect judgmental confidence and, consequently, affect message scrutiny. Study 1 shows that, as predicted, high consistency/low consensus and low consistency/high consensus (incongruent combinations) lead to higher desired confidence and more extensive message elaboration than high consistency/high consensus and low consistency/low consensus (congruent combinations). Similarly, Study 2 reveals heightened message scrutiny given incongruent (vs. congruent) combinations of distinctiveness and consensus. Results are discussed with respect to majority/minority influence processes and multiple source characteristics.

Mood and Multiple Source Characteristics: Mood Congruency of Source Consensus Status and Source Trustworthiness as Determinants of Message Scrutiny:

This research deals with the interplay of mood and multiple source characteristics in regard to persuasion processes and attitudes. In a four-factorial experiment, mood (positive vs. negative), source consensus status (majority vs. minority), source trustworthiness (high vs. low), and message strength (strong vs. weak) were manipulated. Results were in line with predictions of a mood-congruent expectancies perspective rather than competing predictions of a mood-as-information perspective. Specifically, individuals in both moods evinced higher message scrutiny given mood-incongruent (vs. mood-congruent) source characteristics. That is, across source trustworthiness, positive (negative) mood led to higher message scrutiny given a minority (majority) versus a majority (minority) source. Furthermore, across source consensus, positive (negative) mood led to higher message scrutiny given an untrustworthy (trustworthy) versus a trustworthy (untrustworthy) source. Additional analyses revealed that processing effort increased from doubly mood-congruent source combinations (low effort) over mixed-source combinations (intermediate effort) to doubly mood-incongruent combinations (high effort). Implications are discussed.

Does Matching Versus Mismatching Message Content to Attitude Functions Lead to Biased Processing? The Role of Message Ambiguity

Previous research on the question of whether matching message content to the functional basis of peoples attitudes may lead to biased message processing has been inconclusive. In particular, existing evidence is open to reinterpretation such that matched strong arguments led to more attitudinal agreement because they were scrutinized more effortfully than mismatched strong arguments. The present study was conducted to examine the hypothesis that matching the message to attitude functions may lead to biased processing only given an ambiguous (vs. an unambiguous strong or weak) message. High and low self-monitors were presented with a matched message (i.e., a quality appeal for low self-monitors and an image appeal for high self-monitors) or a mismatched message (opposite combinations). The message content was strong, weak, or ambiguous. As predicted, only given an ambiguous message did biased processing lead to more agreement when the appeal matched (versus mismatched) attitude functions. In contrast, a strong message led to more agreement than a weak message regardless of functional matching (unbiased processing).

Mood and Processing of Proattitudinal and Counterattitudinal Messages

Existing research has established the effects of mood on processing of clearly mood-elevating proattitudinal messages and clearly mood-threatening counterattitudinal messages (i.e., mood-relevant messages). Little is known, however, about mood effects on processing of less mood-elevating proattitudinal messages and less mood-threatening counterattitudinal messages (i.e., mood-irrelevant messages). The present research tested hypotheses regarding processing of mood-irrelevant messages based on a mood-congruent expectancies approach. Specifically, two studies were conducted in which prior attitudes were measured (Study 1) or manipulated (Study 2). As predicted, results showed higher scrutiny in negative mood given a proattitudinal message and in positive mood given a counterattitudinal message than in negative mood given a counterattitudinal message and in positive mood given a proattitudinal message. Discussion focuses on implications regarding the accumulated literature, different accounts proposed to understand mood effects on processing effort, and further research.

Mood and Threat to Attitudinal Freedom Delineating the Role of Mood Congruency and Hedonic Contingency in Counterattitudinal Message Processing

The present research examined when happy individuals’ processing of a counterattitudinal message is guided by mood-congruent expectancies versus hedonic considerations. Recipients in positive, neutral, or negative mood read a strong or weak counterattitudinal message which either contained a threat to attitudinal freedom or did not contain such a threat. As expected, a freedom-threatening counterattitudinal message was more mood threatening than a counterattitudinal message not threatening freedom. Furthermore, as predicted by the mood-congruent expectancies approach, people in positive mood processed a nonthreatening counterattitudinal message more thoroughly than people in negative mood. Message processing in neutral mood lay in between. In contrast, as predicted by the hedonic-contingency view, a threatening counterattitudinal message was processed less thoroughly in positive mood than in neutral mood. In negative mood, processing of a threatening counterattitudinal message was as low as in positive mood. These findings suggest that message processing is determined by mood congruency unless hedonic considerations override expectancy-based processing inclinations.

The effect of multiple source information on message scrutiny: The case of source expertise and likability

To test for the effect of multiple source information on message scrutiny, in a three-factorial experiment source likability, source expertise, and argument quality were manipulated independently. In line with predictions, results indicated heightened message scrutiny in the case of inconsistent as compared to consistent source information. Thus, argument quality affected attitudes and perceived argument strength only when the message was presented by a dislikable expert and a likable non-expert (inconsistent source information). Both measures were unaffected by argument quality when the message was presented by a likable expert and a dislikable non-expert (consistent source information). The role of multiple source information in persuasion is discussed.

An Attitude Strength and Self-Perception Framework Regarding the Bi-directional Relationship of Job Satisfaction with Extra-Role and In-Role Behavior: The Doubly Moderating Role of Work Centrality

Studies have identified variables either moderating the extent to which job satisfaction predicts work behavior or moderating the reverse impact of work behavior on job satisfaction. Based on an attitude strength and self-perception framework, we argue that certain variables may moderate both the predictive utility of job satisfaction for work behavior and the impact of work behavior on job satisfaction. Specifically focusing on work centrality, we hold that high work centrality renders job satisfaction a strong job attitude, whereas low work centrality renders job satisfaction a weak job attitude. Hence, the predictive utility of job satisfaction for both extra-role behavior and in-role behavior should be higher the more work is central to employees. In contrast, the influence of extra-role behavior, but not of in-role behavior, on job satisfaction should be higher the less work is central to employees. Results of a two-wave study (N = 176) were in line with these predictions. We discuss further variables that may play a similar role for the bi-directional relationship between job satisfaction and work behavior.

Mood and Processing Effort: The Mood-Congruent Expectancies Approach

Abstract The influence of positive and negative moods on cognition is of major interest in psychological research. One vital domain of study concerns the impact of moods on processing effort. In this regard, a number of approaches have been put forward to explain when, how, and why moods affect processing effort. Against the background of these approaches and respective findings, the mood-congruent expectancies approach (MCA) suggests a basic cognitive mechanism that symmetrically affects processing effort in positive and negative moods. The MCA predicts effortful processing in both moods when mood-based expectancies are disconfirmed, and reduced processing in both moods when mood-based expectancies are confirmed. As with other, mood-unrelated factors, these processing effects of moods should emerge when background processing likelihood is moderate. In this chapter, I review the major approaches and empirical findings, present the MCA, and describe our research regarding mood effects on processing effort in the domains of persuasion and person perception. I also discuss the implications of our research for existing approaches and findings, suggest how the MCA can be reconciled with previous studies putatively revealing MCA-inconsistent processing in negative mood, and offer directions for future research.