Ricardo Sanz

Real-Time Tree-Foliage Surface Estimation Using a Ground Laser Scanner

The optimization of most pesticide and fertilizer applications is based on overall grove conditions. In this paper, we propose a measurement system to estimate the foliage surface of a tree crop. The system is based on a ground laser scanner that estimates the volume of the trees and then extrapolates their leaf area using simple and fast algorithms to allow true real-time operation. Tests with pear trees demonstrated that the relation between the volume and the foliage can be interpreted as linear with a coefficient of correlation (R) of 0.81, and the foliage surface can be estimated from this volume with an average error less than 6%.

Real-time approaches for characterization of fully and partially scanned canopies in groves

Characterization of orchards enhances agricultural processes and resource management.Four computational geometry methods to estimate tree canopy volumes were evaluated.The methodologies were validated using real agricultural scenarios 3D LiDAR data.The methodologies have shown to converge to steady state estimations of the volume.Resources can be saved when partially scanning canopies. Efficient information management in orchard characterization leads to more efficient agricultural processes. In this brief, a set of computational geometry methods are presented and evaluated for orchard characterization; in particular, for the estimation of canopy volume and shape in groves and orchards using a LiDAR (Light Detection And Ranging) sensor mounted on an agricultural service unit. The proposed approaches were evaluated and validated in the field, showing they are convergent in the estimation process and that they are able to estimate the crown volume for fully scanned canopies in real time; for partially observed tree crowns, accuracy decreases up to 30% (the worst case). The latter is the major contribution of this brief since it implies that the automated service unit does not need to cover all alley-ways for an accurate modeling of the orchard, thus saving valuable resources.

Advanced Technologies for the Improvement of Spray Application Techniques in Spanish Viticulture: An Overview

Spraying techniques have been undergoing continuous evolution in recent decades. This paper presents part of the research work carried out in Spain in the field of sensors for characterizing vineyard canopies and monitoring spray drift in order to improve vineyard spraying and make it more sustainable. Some methods and geostatistical procedures for mapping vineyard parameters are proposed, and the development of a variable rate sprayer is described. All these technologies are interesting in terms of adjusting the amount of pesticides applied to the target canopy.

Eye-Safe Lidar System for Pesticide Spray Drift Measurement

Spray drift is one of the main sources of pesticide contamination. For this reason, an accurate understanding of this phenomenon is necessary in order to limit its effects. Nowadays, spray drift is usually studied by using in situ collectors which only allow time-integrated sampling of specific points of the pesticide clouds. Previous research has demonstrated that the light detection and ranging (lidar) technique can be an alternative for spray drift monitoring. This technique enables remote measurement of pesticide clouds with high temporal and distance resolution. Despite these advantages, the fact that no lidar instrument suitable for such an application is presently available has appreciably limited its practical use. This work presents the first eye-safe lidar system specifically designed for the monitoring of pesticide clouds. Parameter design of this system is carried out via signal-to-noise ratio simulations. The instrument is based on a 3-mJ pulse-energy erbium-doped glass laser, an 80-mm diameter telescope, an APD optoelectronic receiver and optomechanically adjustable components. In first test measurements, the lidar system has been able to measure a topographic target located over 2 km away. The instrument has also been used in spray drift studies, demonstrating its capability to monitor the temporal and distance evolution of several pesticide clouds emitted by air-assisted sprayers at distances between 50 and 100 m.

Mapping Vineyard Leaf Area Using Mobile Terrestrial Laser Scanners: Should Rows be Scanned On-the-Go or Discontinuously Sampled?

The leaf area index (LAI) is defined as the one-side leaf area per unit ground area, and is probably the most widely used index to characterize grapevine vigor. However, LAI varies spatially within vineyard plots. Mapping and quantifying this variability is very important for improving management decisions and agricultural practices. In this study, a mobile terrestrial laser scanner (MTLS) was used to map the LAI of a vineyard, and then to examine how different scanning methods (on-the-go or discontinuous systematic sampling) may affect the reliability of the resulting raster maps. The use of the MTLS allows calculating the enveloping vegetative area of the canopy, which is the sum of the leaf wall areas for both sides of the row (excluding gaps) and the projected upper area. Obtaining the enveloping areas requires scanning from both sides one meter length section along the row at each systematic sampling point. By converting the enveloping areas into LAI values, a raster map of the latter can be obtained by spatial interpolation (kriging). However, the user can opt for scanning on-the-go in a continuous way and compute 1-m LAI values along the rows, or instead, perform the scanning at discontinuous systematic sampling within the plot. An analysis of correlation between maps indicated that MTLS can be used discontinuously in specific sampling sections separated by up to 15 m along the rows. This capability significantly reduces the amount of data to be acquired at field level, the data storage capacity and the processing power of computers.

Georeferenced Scanning System to Estimate the Leaf Wall Area in Tree Crops

This paper presents the use of a terrestrial light detection and ranging (LiDAR) system to scan the vegetation of tree crops to estimate the so-called pixelated leaf wall area (PLWA). Scanning rows laterally and considering only the half-canopy vegetation to the line of the trunks, PLWA refers to the vertical projected area without gaps detected by LiDAR. As defined, PLWA may be different depending on the side from which the LiDAR is applied. The system is completed by a real-time kinematic global positioning system (RTK-GPS) sensor and an inertial measurement unit (IMU) sensor for positioning. At the end, a total leaf wall area (LWA) is computed and assigned to the X, Y position of each vertical scan. The final value of the area depends on the distance between two consecutive scans (or horizontal resolution), as well as the number of intercepted points within each scan, since PLWA is only computed when the laser beam detects vegetation. To verify system performance, tests were conducted related to the georeferencing task and synchronization problems between GPS time and central processing unit (CPU) time. Despite this, the overall accuracy of the system is generally acceptable. The Leaf Area Index (LAI) can then be estimated using PLWA as an explanatory variable in appropriate linear regression models.

Parameter design of a biaxial lidar ceilometer

This paper presents parameter design methodology and related optomechanical engineering of a 905-nm diode-laser biaxial, eye-safe lidar ceilometer prototype for cloud-height monitoring. Starting with a brief review of the state-of-the-art ceilometer technology, acceptable parameter ranges are identified for the key system parts. Parameter tuning is achieved by imposing goal criteria on the simulated signal-to-noise ratio and laser-telescope overlap factor. The system is based on a low-cost pulsed semiconductor laser, low-cost Fresnel-lens telescope, a low-noise-equivalent power avalanche-photodiode optoelectronic receiver, and collimating/focusing adjustable parts. Finally, preliminary test measurements are presented.

Airborne spray drift measurement using passive collectors and lidar Systems

Minimization of the risk associated with spray applications requires a proper understanding of the spray drift phenomenon. This fact has led to the development of several techniques to measure the deposition on horizontal surfaces as well as the airborne spray profiles. Assessment of airborne spray drift is particularly difficult because this phenomenon is subject to variable micrometeorological conditions. However the monitoring of airborne drift has a great importance since it can be carried over long distances. This paper reviews main sampling techniques currently used to asses the airborne spray drift, based on passive collectors and tracers. Theoretical principles that determine the efficiency of passive samplers are studied as well as the performance of different types of tracers. On the other hand, this paper shows new airborne spray drift assessment techniques based on lidar technology, reviewing its principle of operation as well as its practical application in several spray drift trials. It is concluded that the lidar technique has significant advantages over conventional methods, especially in terms of time consumption and monitoring capabilities. However, the future adoption of lidar technology for airborne spray drift studies will be subjected to the development of lidar instruments really adapted to this application.

Real-Time Tree Foliage Estimation Using a Ground Laser Scanner

The optimization of most pesticide and fertilizer applications is based on overall grove conditions. In this work we propose a measurement system based on a ground laser scanner to estimate the volume of the trees and then extrapolate their foliage surface in real-time. Tests with pear trees demonstrated that the relation between the volume and the foliage can be interpreted as linear with a coefficient of correlation (R) of 0.81 and the foliar surface can be estimated with an average error less than 5%

Measurement of Spray Drift with a Specifically Designed Lidar System.

Field measurements of spray drift are usually carried out by passive collectors and tracers. However, these methods are labour- and time-intensive and only provide point- and time-integrated measurements. Unlike these methods, the light detection and ranging (lidar) technique allows real-time measurements, obtaining information with temporal and spatial resolution. Recently, the authors have developed the first eye-safe lidar system specifically designed for spray drift monitoring. This prototype is based on a 1534 nm erbium-doped glass laser and an 80 mm diameter telescope, has scanning capability, and is easily transportable. This paper presents the results of the first experimental campaign carried out with this instrument. High coefficients of determination (R2 > 0.85) were observed by comparing lidar measurements of the spray drift with those obtained by horizontal collectors. Furthermore, the lidar system allowed an assessment of the drift reduction potential (DRP) when comparing low-drift nozzles with standard ones, resulting in a DRP of 57% (preliminary result) for the tested nozzles. The lidar system was also used for monitoring the evolution of the spray flux over the canopy and to generate 2-D images of these plumes. The developed instrument is an advantageous alternative to passive collectors and opens the possibility of new methods for field measurement of spray drift.