Richard A. Block

Cautionary Note on Reporting Eta-Squared Values from Multifactor ANOVA Designs.

The authors provide a cautionary note on reporting accurate eta-squared values from multifactor analysis of variance (ANOVA) designs. They reinforce the distinction between classical and partial eta-squared as measures of strength of association. They provide examples from articles published in premier psychology journals in which the authors erroneously reported partial eta-squared values as representing classical etasquared values. Finally, they discuss broader impacts of inaccurately reported etasquared values for theory development, meta-analytic reviews, and intervention programs.

Prospective and retrospective duration judgments: A meta-analytic review

A meta-analytic review compared prospective and retrospective judgments of duration, or duration judgment paradigm. Some theorists have concluded that the two paradigms involve similar cognitive processes, whereas others have found that they involve different processes. A review of 20 experiments revealed that prospective judgments are longer and less variable than are retrospective judgments. Several theoretically important variables moderate these effects, especially those concerned with information processing activities. Therefore, somewhat different cognitive processes subserve experienced and remembered duration. Attentional models are needed to explain prospective judgments, and memory-based models are needed to explain retrospective judgments. These findings clarify models of human duration judgment and suggest directions for future research. Evidence on duration judgments may also influence models of attention and memory.

Cognitive models of psychological time

Contents: R.A. Block, Introduction. R.A. Block, Models of Psychological Time. J.A. Michon, Implicit and Explicit Representations of Time. D. Zakay, The Evasive Art of Subjective Time Measurement: Some Methodological Dilemmas. R. Patterson, Perceptual Moment Models Revisited. S.S. Campbell, Circadian Rhythms and Human Temporal Experience. H.L. Roitblat, K.N.J. Young, Time and Order: A Comparative Perspective. J.L. Jackson, A Cognitive Approach to Temporal Information Processing. J.J. Summers, B.D. Burns, Timing in Human Movement Sequences. M.R. Jones, Musical Events and Models of Musical Time. S.S. Mo, Time Reversal in Human Cognition: Search for a Temporal Theory of Insanity. F.T. Melges, Identity and Temporal Perspective.

The role of attention in time estimation processes

Abstract Several cognitive models of time estimation have been proposed. We discuss the different role of attention in prospective and retrospective time estimation processes, the empirical evidences and methodological problems in the study of attention, and the relationship between attention, temporal uncertainly and temporal relevance-toward a general theoretical framework for understanding time estimation processes.

How cognitive load affects duration judgments: A meta-analytic review

A meta-analysis of 117 experiments evaluated the effects of cognitive load on duration judgments. Cognitive load refers to information-processing (attentional or working-memory) demands. Six types of cognitive load were analyzed to resolve ongoing controversies and to test current duration judgment theories. Duration judgments depend on whether or not participants are informed in advance that they are needed: prospective paradigm (informed) versus retrospective paradigm (not informed). With higher cognitive load, the prospective duration judgment ratio (subjective duration to objective duration) decreases but the retrospective ratio increases. Thus, the duration judgment ratio differs depending on the paradigm and the specific type of cognitive load. As assessed by the coefficient of variation, relative variability of prospective, but not retrospective, judgments increases with cognitive load. The prospective findings support models emphasizing attentional resources, especially executive control. The retrospective findings support models emphasizing memory changes. Alternative theories do not fit with the meta-analytic findings and are rejected.

Prospective and retrospective duration judgments: an executive-control perspective.

Most theorists propose that when a person is aware that a duration judgment must be made (prospective paradigm), experienced duration depends on attention to temporal information, which competes with attention to nontemporal information. When a person is not aware that a duration judgment must be made until later (retrospective paradigm), remembered duration depends on incidental memory for temporal information. In the present article we describe two experiments in which durations involved with high-level, executive-control functions were judged either prospectively or retrospectively. In one experiment, the executive function involved resolving syntactic ambiguity in reading. In another experiment, it involved controlling the switching between tasks. In both experiments, there was a unique cost to the operation of control high-level, executive functions which was manifested by prospective reproductions shortening a finding that supports an attentional model of prospective timing. In addition, activation of executive functions produced contextual changes that were encoded in memory and resulted in longer retrospective reproductions, a finding that supports a contextual-change model of retrospective timing. Thus, different cognitive processes underlie prospective and retrospective timing. Recent findings obtained by some brain researchers also support these conclusions.

Remembered duration: Evidence for a contextual-change hypothesis.

Two experiments used levels-of-processing tasks to investigate hypotheses on remembered duration of relatively long intervals. In Experiment 1, level of processing (shallow or deep) of presented information did not affect remembered duration, even though it had a substantial effect on memory for individual stimulus events. In Experiment 2, an interval containing different kinds of tasks (both shallow and deep processing) was remembered as being longer than one containing a single kind of task (either shallow or deep processing). Current formulations of event-memory, attentional, and informational hypotheses on remembered duration cannot easily explain these findings. However, the findings are consistent with a contextual-change hypothesis, which emphasizes memory for the overall amount of change in cognitive context during an interval. Implications regarding contextual factors in memory are discussed.

Memory for Mode of Input.

Three experiments examined the retention of information about mode of input of familiar words. In Expt. I, input modes were vision vs. audition; in Expt. II, block vs. script letters (all visual); in Expt. III, male vs. female voices (all auditory). Eight 18-word lists were presented. Half the words in each list occurred in one input mode and half in the other, and each list was followed by immediate free recall. After the last recall test, an unexpected recognition test was administered in which the subject was to indicate the input mode of each recognized word. Although the between-modality distinction was more effective than the within-modality distinctions, all three studies produced similar results: free recall revealed clustering by mode of input, and the final test showed that input-mode information was retained for several minutes after presentation.

Sex differences in duration judgments: A meta-analytic review

We quantitatively reviewed human sex differences in the magnitude and variability of duration judgments. Data from 4,794 females and 4,688 males yielded 87 effect size estimates of magnitude and 28 of variability. The overall sex difference in duration judgment magnitude was small but statistically significant. It was moderated by whether study participants knew in advance (prospective paradigm) or only later (retrospective paradigm) that they would be required to judge duration. Although prospective judgments showed no overall sex effect, some levels of moderator variables showed a small but statistically significant effect. Retrospective judgments showed a larger subjective-to-objective duration ratio for females than for males, and several variables moderated this effect. Females’ judgments also showed more intersubject variability than did males’ judgments. Relative to males, females sustain attention to time more in the prospective paradigm and have better episodic memory in the retrospective paradigm.

Chapter 9 Experiencing and Remembering Time: Affordances, Context, and Cognition

Publisher Summary This chapter uses contextualistic model as an organizing tool to visualize some of the diverse experimental findings and theories, with emphasis on duration experiences. The general contextualistic model holds that four kinds of factors interact to influence temporal experiences. Each of the four factors is a cluster of variables, which interact with each of the other factors to influence temporal experiences. The model helps in classifying experiments on the psychology of time, most of which manipulate only one or two of these factors. One factor is the kind of temporal behavior under consideration. Another factor is the characteristics of the time period, which a person experiences and, perhaps, also evaluates and judges. This includes the absolute duration of the time period, as well as various contents-events, whether external or purely cognitive, that occurs during it. Another factor is the characteristics of the experience and the final factor is activities during the time period. A person may engage in various activities, ranging from relatively effortless nonattending through relatively effortful information processing strategies.