Richard A. Griggs

The elusive pragmatic reasoning schemas effect

The present study examined the pragmatic reasoning schema theory of deductive reasoning—specifically, its explanation of performance on the selection task. Experiment 1 replicated a result crucial to the theory, the finding of facilitation on abstract versions of the selection task based on pragmatic reasoning schemas. However, Experiments 2, 3, and 4 established that this facilitation was dependent upon two presentation factors: (1) the presence of explicit negatives on the NOT P and NOT Q cards and (2) the inclusion of a checking context in the problem statement. These results are discussed in terms of Evanss two-stage (heuristic/analytic processing) model of reasoning.

The effects of experience on performance in Wason's selection task

The Wason selection task is a hypothetico-deductive reasoning problem employing the logical rule of implication. Recent studies have indicated that performance on this task may be related to subjects’ experience with the task content. Five versions of the task that differed in the manner in which they were related to the subjects’ experience with a familiar implication relationship were examined. The correct solution rate varied as a function of both the subjects’ extraexperimental and intraexperimental experience. A memory-cuing/reasoning-by-analogy explanation is proposed to account for the direct relationship between performance and the degree of similarity to subjects’ experience.

The effects of problem content and negation on Wason's selection task

The present study examined performance on Wasons selection task for two types of thematic content that have been shown to lead reliably to correct responding in this task. The four versions of the implication rule that are possible when negative components (antecedent and consequent) are allowed were used. This permitted a test of the hypothesis that matching bias and verification bias are cognitive short-circuiting strategies which are used when subjects have no prior experience with the problem content. In support of this hypothesis, facilitation was observed for the negated thematic rules when compared to performance on negated abstract rules. In addition, neither matching bias nor verification bias explained very well the data for negated abstract rules which were recodable into non-negative form. For both thematic and abstract problems, a fairly substantial percentage of the selections were unaccounted for with respect to processing strategy.

Memory cueing and instructional effects on Wason’s selection task

The present study examined the hypothesis that violation and role-playing instructions are necessary conditions for facilitation on Wason’s selection task and that facilitation due to memory cueing via thematic content is secondary. The results of a factorial experiment employing these factors did not support the hypothesis. Memory cueing was indicated as the primary factor, but violation instructions did increase the amount of facilitation observed. This interactive effect and the nature of facilitation by memory cueing are briefly discussed.

Facilitation in the abstract selection task: The effects of attentional and instructional factors.

The present study examined performance on Wasons four-card abstract selection task. Baseline performance is very poor, usually less than 10% correct; and this task has a long record of resistance to facilitation. It was hypothesized that the two primary sources of difficulty are selective encoding of the problem information and the lack of satisfactory analytic processing. Three experiments were conducted to test this hypothesis. In Experiment 1, performance was improved by explicating the implication rule. The majority of subjects, however, still failed to make the correct selection. Subjects were required in Experiment 2 to provide reasons for their selection or non-selection of each of the cards. This response procedure, paired with an explicated rule, led to further improvements in performance (over 50% correct selections). In Experiment 3, the influence of the type of selection instruction (true-false vs. violation) was examined. Paired with an explicated rule and the reasons response format, violation instructions led to one of the highest correct selection rates ever observed for any version of the selection task: over 80% correct. Because of the importance of this result, it was replicated twice. The results of these three experiments are discussed in terms of Johnson-Laird and Byrnes mental models theory and Evanss two-stage model of reasoning.

Introductory Psychology Textbooks: An Objective Analysis and Update

Following a brief summary of changes in the introductory psychology textbook market over the past 2 decades, we assessed the impact of these changes on the 37 full-length texts presently comprising this market. We compared their objective features with those of introductory texts from the recent past. Although the number of chapters has decreased, actual text length has increased. Coverage of traditional topics has lessened to include coverage of nontraditional topics such as diversity. The typical introductory text at present is in its 4th edition and has 1 White male author. The objective data and complete topic distribution analysis for all 37 texts should facilitate the text selection process for introductory psychology teachers.

The effects of problem content, instructions, and verbalization procedure on Wason’s selection task

This study examined various hypotheses for facilitation on Wason’s four-card selection task by means of a factorial experiment. The factors were memory cuing vs. nonmemory cuing content, violation vs. true-false instructions, and verbalization procedure. The results indicated that memory cuing content may be a necessary and sufficient condition for facilitation, but that the amount of facilitation is affected by the type of instructions. Verbalization procedure had no effects, but this may have been due to the subjects’ failure to comply completely with the various verbalization instructions. An explanation of the results that assumes that content and instructions determine the cognitive processing load of the task and hence the solution strategies employed is considered.

Similarity of Introductory Psychology Textbooks: Reality or Illusion?.

Because the perception of extensive similarity in introductory psychology textbooks is important in the textbook selection process, we examined whether this perception was accurate. We systematically reviewed extant research encompassing 6 textbook dimensions and found that perceived similarity is the product of 2 salient, easily accessible, global text variables: chapter topics and organization. Beyond these variables, textbook homogeneity disappears. We consider stereotyping due to the arduous, complex nature of the textbook selection process as an explanation for this misperception of similarity and urge teachers to consider introductory texts more thoroughly to make the best choices for their individual courses.

Student Belief and Involvement in the Paranormal and Performance in Introductory Psychology

Student belief and. involvement in 10 paranormal phenomena were assessed via questionnaire. Prevalence of belief was extensive, with over 99% of the sample expressing belief in at least one phenomenon. Personal involvement was less prevalent but substantial. Over 65% indicated personal involvement in at least one phenomenon. In addition, men who believed in ESP/psycho-kinesis and firewalking and women who felt they had personally experienced precognition during dreams had significantly lower course grades than their skeptical and uninvolved counterparts, even when the effect of SAT score was removed. In light of these findings, we discuss the introductory psychology instructors role in combating unfounded beliefs and fostering critical thinking skills.

A National Survey of Undergraduate Psychology Degree Options and Major Requirements

We examined the catalogs of a random sample of 292 national and regional universities and liberal arts colleges to collect curricular data on the prevalence of focused specialty versus general degrees in psychology and on the course requirements for the various degree options. We analyzed the data by type of degree and institution. Requirements for the various psychology majors were in general agreement with recommendations by the curriculum committee of the recent St. Marys Conference. We also found that a substantial number of schools offer options other than general degrees. Given trends such as rising undergraduate enrollments and concern for career relevance and job preparation, we believe that the number of these alternative degree options may increase in the future.